المعرفة

قرن 19

القرن التاسع عشر هو الفترة الزمنية الممتدة من اليوم الأول لعام 1801 إلى اليوم الأخير من عام 1900 حسب التقويم الميلادي.

الألفية: الألفية 2
القرون:
خطوط زمنية:
زعماء الدول:
  • القرن 18
  • القرن 19
  • القرن 20
العقود:
التصنيفات: المواليد – الوفيات
التأسيسات – الانحلالات

شهد هذا القرن أستكمال السيطرة البريطانية متحكمةً بأكثر من ربع سكان الأرض في حين بدأت كل من الإمبراطورية الإسبانية والإمبراطورية البرتغالية والدولة العثمانية بالاضمحلال. وزوال الإمبراطورية الرومانية المقدسة والإمبراطورية المغولية. أصبحت الإمبراطورية البريطانية القوة العظمى في العالم في أعقاب الحروب النابليونية، وفرضت ما يدعى بالسلم البريطاني مما شجع الازدهار التجاري وكافحت القرصنة. وتقلصت العبودية في العالم بعد ثورة العبيد في هاييتي. عمل استخدام الكهرباء والفولاذ والنفط على إنعاش وإمداد الثورة الصناعية الثانية بالطاقة التي مكنت كل من ألمانيا وإمبراطورية اليابان والولايات المتحدة من أن تصبح قوى عظمى على الساحة الدولية، وأدى بدوره لظهور عصر الاستعمارية الجديدة. في حين فشلت الإمبراطورية الروسية وسلالة تشينغ الحاكمة في الصين في مجاراة باقي القوى الاستعمارية وهذا سرعان ما أدى لظهور قلقلات اجتماعية كبيرة في البلدين خلال القرن العشرون. [1][2][3]

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أحداث

البداية كانت في إيطاليا التي كانت منقسمة الي دويلات ففي جنوب إيطاليا وجزيرة صقلية كانت مملكة الصقليتين التي


شخصيات هامة

 
Abraham Lincoln in 1863, 16th President of The United States, presided during the American Civil War, assassinated in April 1865
 
Tsar Alexander II, also known as Alexander the Liberator, was the Emperor of the Russian Empire from 3 March 1855 until his assassination in 1881

الاستعراض والمسرح

 
Sarah Bernhardt, 1877
 
Konstantin Stanislavski, creator of the Stanislavski's system

الرياضة

المقالة الرئيسية: Baseball Hall of Fame, Major League Baseball, List of bare-knuckle boxers, List of heavyweight boxing champions, and Olympic Games
 
John L Sullivan in his prime, c.1882.


 
J. P. Morgan
المقالة الرئيسية: Robber baron (industrialist) and business magnate


 
Jesse and Frank James, 1872
 
Sitting Bull and Buffalo Bill Cody, Montreal, Quebec, 1885


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اختراعات وأكتشافات

 
هاينريش شليمان، عالم آثار

الصحفيون والإرساليون والمستكشفون

 
Roald Amundsen

التصوير الفوتوغرافي

 
Mathew Brady, Self-portrait, c.1875
انظر أيضاً: History of photography, List of photojournalists, Photojournalism, and Daguerreotype

الفنانون البصريون والرسامون والمثالون

المقالة الرئيسية: تاريخ الرسم, الرسم الغربي, and Ukiyo-e
 
Paul Cézanne, Self-portrait, 1880–1881
 
Jan Matejko, Self-portrait, 1892
 
Vincent van Gogh, Self-portrait, 1889

The Realism and Romanticism of the early 19th century gave way to Impressionism and Post-Impressionism in the later half of the century, with Paris being the dominant art capital of the world. In the United States the Hudson River School was prominent. 19th-century painters included:


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الموسيقى

المقالة الرئيسية: List of Romantic-era composers, الموسيقى الرومانسية, and الرومانسية
 
Ludwig van Beethoven
 
Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres, Niccolo Paganini, (c.1819), charcoal drawing

Sonata form matured during the Classical era to become the primary form of instrumental compositions throughout the 19th century. Much of the music from the 19th century was referred to as being in the Romantic style. Many great composers lived through this era such as Ludwig van Beethoven, Franz Liszt, Frédéric Chopin, Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky and Richard Wagner. The list includes:

الأدب

المقالة الرئيسية: Romantic poetry and 19th century in literature
 
Charles Dickens
 
Fyodor Dostoyevsky, 1879
 
Mark Twain, 1894
 
Jane Austen
 
Daguerreotype of Edgar Allan Poe
 
Arthur Rimbaud c.1872
 
Anton Chekhov
 
Ralph Waldo Emerson

On the literary front the new century opens with romanticism, a movement that spread throughout Europe in reaction to 18th-century rationalism, and it develops more or less along the lines of the Industrial Revolution, with a design to react against the dramatic changes wrought on nature by the steam engine and the railway. William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge are considered the initiators of the new school in England, while in the continent the German Sturm und Drang spreads its influence as far as Italy and Spain.

French arts had been hampered by the Napoleonic Wars but subsequently developed rapidly. الحداثة بدأت.

The Goncourts and Émile Zola in France and Giovanni Verga in Italy produce some of the finest naturalist novels. Italian naturalist novels are especially important in that they give a social map of the new unified Italy to a people that until then had been scarcely aware of its ethnic and cultural diversity. On February 21, 1848, Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels published the Communist Manifesto.

There was a huge literary output during the 19th century. Some of the most famous writers included the Russians Alexander Pushkin, Nikolai Gogol, Leo Tolstoy, Anton Chekhov and Fyodor Dostoyevsky; the English Charles Dickens, John Keats, Alfred, Lord Tennyson and Jane Austen; the Scottish Sir Walter Scott; the Irish Oscar Wilde; the Americans Edgar Allan Poe, Ralph Waldo Emerson, and Mark Twain; and the French Victor Hugo, Honoré de Balzac, Jules Verne, Alexandre Dumas and Charles Baudelaire. Some other important writers of note included:

العلوم

 
Charles Darwin
 
Dmitri Mendeleev
 
Nadar, Louis Pasteur, 1878
 
Mme. Marie Curie, c.1898

The 19th century saw the birth of science as a profession; the term scientist was coined in 1833 by William Whewell.[4] Among the most influential ideas of the 19th century were those of Charles Darwin, who in 1859 published the book The Origin of Species, which introduced the idea of evolution by natural selection. Dmitri Mendeleev created the first periodic table of elements. Louis Pasteur made the first vaccine against rabies, and also made many discoveries in the field of chemistry, including the asymmetry of crystals. Thomas Alva Edison gave the world a practical everyday lightbulb. Nikola Tesla pioneered the induction motor, high frequency transmission of electricity, and remote control. Karl Weierstrass and other mathematicians also carried out the arithmetization of analysis for functions of real and complex variables; they also began the use of hypercomplex numbers. But the most important step in science at this time was the ideas formulated by Michael Faraday and James Clerk Maxwell. Their work changed the face of physics and made possible for new technology to come about. The list of important 19th century scientists includes:

الفلسفة والدين

 
Karl Marx
 
Friedrich Nietzsche

The 19th century was host to a variety of religious and philosophical thinkers, including:

السياسة والعسكرية

 
Otto von Bismarck, the Iron Chancellor
 
The last Shogun Tokugawa Yoshinobu, c. 1867
 
The allies: Sultan of the Ottoman Empire; Abdulmecid I, Queen of United Kingdom, Victoria and President of France, Napoleon III.

اختراعات وأكتشافات

انظر أيضاً

المصادر

  1. ^ Encyclopædia Britannica's Great Inventions. Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived 2020-05-07 at the Wayback Machine
  2. ^ "Dec. 18, 1878: Let There Be Light — Electric Light". 18 December 2009. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |(empty string)= (help)
  3. ^ قالب:استشهاد بدورية محكمة
  4. ^ "William Whewell". Stanford University. Retrieved 2008-03-03.
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