تصفية الاستعمار

تصفية الاستعمار Decolonization هو تفكيك الاستعمار، العملية التي من خلالها تؤسس دولة ما سيطرتها وتحافظ عليها على أقاليم ما وراء البحار. ينطبق المفهوم بشكل خاص على تفكيك الامبراطوريات الاستعمارية، خلال النصف الثاني من القرن العشرين، التي تأسست قبل الحرب العالمية الأولى في جميع أنحاء العالم.^[2] يركز العلماء بشكل خاص على الحركات المطالبة بالاستقلال في المستعمرات، مثل قومية الكريول.^[3]

كرتون تركي يصوّر الولايات المتحدة والاتحاد السوڤيتي والمملكة المتحدة يحملون جسراً، فوق برك من الدم تتربص فيها ثعابين النازية، وتمر عليه شعوب العالم الثالث إلى المستقبل. والفيل يمسك بخرطومة وثيقة مكتوب عليها "استقلال". بريشة جمال نادر، يونيو 1945.^[1]

زعزعت الحرب العالمية الثانية ركائز الدول الاستعماريّة. ومع أن بريطانية، خرجت ظافرة من الحرب، فإن قواها تبددّت وأصبحت غير قادرة على إحكام سيطرتها على امبراطوريتها الواسعة. وعلى هذا المنوال أيضاً تضاءلت قدرة فرنسا وبلجيكا وهولندا.

بيد أنّ العامل الأكبر الذي عجّل بتصفية الاستعمار العسكري هو نموّ الشعور القوميّ لدى الشعوب المستعمَرة، ونمو نشاط حركات التحرير فيها ومطالبتها بتطبيق مبادئ المساواة والديمقراطيّة وحقّ الشعوب في تقرير مصيرها، وهي المبادئ التي نادى بها الحلفاء أنفسهم في حربهم مع دول المحور، وأيدّها ميثاق الأمم المتحدة ركائز لمجتمع دولي جديد يقوم على المساواة واحترام حقوق الإنسان، ومنع الحرب وسيلةً للتعامل الدولي، مع الاعتراف بحق الدفاع المشروع.

ويكفي لإدراك مدى اليقظة التي اجتاحت المستعمرات التي أصبحت قرارات الأمم المتحدة تطلق عليها اسم «الأراضي التي لا تحكم نفسها بنفسها» مقارنة بين المجمع الإفريقي الرابع الذي عقد بعد الحرب العالمية الأولى والمجمع الخامس الذي عقد بعد الحرب العالمية الثانية سنة 1945، وكان المجمع يضم نخبة الإفريقيين والمتحدرين من أصل إفريقي: ففي حين كان الأوّل يطالب بتمثيل أوسع للعرق الإفريقي في حكومات المستعمرات، وإلغاء العبودية والعمل الإجباري، وإصلاح أحوال المعيشة في المستعمرات، اتخذ المجمع الثاني المنعقد في مانشستر يتخذ قرارات إجماعية يطالب فيها بإلغاء كل أشكال الامبريالية الاقتصادية والسياسية، ويدعو إلى تحقيق استقلال إفريقية، ولو باستعمال القوة، إذا لم تُجدِ الوسائل السلمية نفعاً لبلوغ هذا الاستقلال.

وبالفعل فقد تطوّر الاجتهاد في القانون الدولي على يد الجمعية العامة للأمم المتحدة إلى حدّ وصف الاستعمار جريمةً تقترف بحق الإنسانية وعدّ النضال من أجل التحرير عملاً مشروعاً ولو لجأ إلى استخدام القوّة.

وإلى جانب هذا التطوّر في المبادئ أقامت المنظمة الدولية جهازاً لمراقبة تصفية الاستعمار والإسراع في إنهائه ووضعت في قرار الجمعية العامة ذي الرقم 1514 لسنة 1960 تفاصيل عن مسيرة نقل السلطة في البلاد غير المتمتعة بالحكم الذاتي إلى ممثلي البلاد الشرعيين.

ونظّمت أساليب الإشراف على إجراءات الاستفتاء والانتخاب وانتقال السلطات والمراحل الانتقالية. وقد تدخلت المنظمة الدولية فعلياً في أزمات كثيرة منها أزمة الكونغو وروديسية في حين كان أثرها في بقية الأحوال ينحصر في تجنيد الرأي العام الدولي للضغط على الدول التي كلفت إدارة تلك البلاد، وهي التسمية التي أطلقتها قرارات الأمم المتحدة على الدول المستعمرة للإشارة إلى أنّ إدارتها لتلك البلاد وقتيّة وغايتها تسهيل بلوغ البلاد التي تديرها الحرية والاستقلال فلا تحاول التملّص من مسؤولية إنهاء سيطرتها بأسرع وقت ممكن.

وقد تفاوتت عمليّات تصفية الاستعمار في الأصقاع المختلفة بين عمليّات تمّت بوسائل سلميّة نسبياً بصرف النظر عمّا خلفته من مشاكل داخلية وإقليميّة، وبين عمليّات رافقها العنف، أو لم تنفّذ إلا بانتهاء حرب سببّها الخلاف على السلطة الوريثة للأراضي المحرّرة.

وقد حصلت الهند وباكستان وبرمانيا على استقلالها سنة 1947، وإندونيسيا سنة 1949، وليبية سنة 1951، والسودان سنة 1956، وغانة سنة 1957، وماليزية سنة 1958، ونيجيرية سنة 1960. وكذلك تحررت الأراضي التي كانت خاضعة للحكم الفرنسي في إفريقية جنوبي الصحراء كغينية سنة 1958، وبقية الدول الإفريقية السوداء ومدغشقر سنة 1960، وجزر الكومور سنة 1975، وجيبوتي سنة 1977. لكن الاستعمار لم ينته في الكونغو وروديسية وبلاد الهند الصينية الفرنسية إلا بعد أزمات داخلية ودوليّة كان أهمها تلك التي قادت إلى تصدّي شعب فييتنام على التوالي لكل من فرنسة التي هزمت في معركة «بيان فو» والولايات المتحدة التي اضطرّت إلى مغادرة فييتنام بعد حرب ضروس. وفي بعض الحالات كان وجود أقلية استوطنت في المستعمرات وأبقت على ولائها للبلد المستعمر الأم عاملاً من عوامل النزاع وبذر الحرب الأهلية.

وقد كانت قضية الجزائر المثال «التقليدي» والدرامي لهذه الفئة، فكان وضعها يختلف عن وضع كل من المغرب وتونس اللتين كان يطبّق عليهما نظام الحماية، وقد بلغ المغرب استقلاله الكامل سنة 1956، وبلغت تونس صيغة من الاستقلال أقرّت مع ذلك بمبدأ تداخل العلاقات مع فرنسة إلى أن عقدت سلسلة من الاتفاقات بين فرنسة وتونس في المجالات الدبلوماسية والعسكرية والمالية بين سنتي 1956 و1958 فأفرغت هذا المفهوم الغامض من التداخل من أي محتوى جوهري. وكان اختلاف وضع الجزائر عن وضع جارتيها أن فرنسة عاملتها على أنها أرض مستعمرة ثم ألحقتها بالأراضي الفرنسية وعدّت جميع سكانها من رعاياها من دون أن تمنح الأكثرية الساحقة من المواطنين الجزائريين الحقوق السياسية والاقتصادية التي كان من المفروض أن تنشئها هذه الرعوية. بل أمعن الحكام العامون المتعاقبون على الجزائر في التمييز في المعاملة بين الأقليّة المستوطنة والأكثرية السّاحقة العربية المسلمة التي كانت تتزايد نسبتها سنة بعد سنة بازدياد المواليد، من دون أن تتحسّن أحوالها الاجتماعية والمعاشيّة. وحين اندلعت الاضطرابات في أوّل تشرين الثاني سنة 1954 كانت البلاد ناضجة لإعلان الثورة العارمة، وتولّت قيادتها حركة التحرير الوطنيّة ودامت على أشدّها ثماني سنوات، من دون أن تجدي نفعاً العمليّات الحربية الفرنسية التي بلغت حدّ الحرب المستمرة الشاملة، ولا وعود الحكومات الفرنسية المتعاقبة بإجراء إصلاحات في النظام. وكانت هذه الوعود تنطلق من المحافظة على الجزائر مقاطعة فرنسية، وهو ما كان يتناقض في الجذور مع التطوّر التاريخي الذي آذن بإنهاء الاستعمار إنهاء كليّاً شاملاً. وغدا من الواضح عقم التغلّب على الثورة بالقوّة، ولاسيّما أنها كانت تحظى بالتأييد المتزايد من سائر البلاد العربية، والدول الاشتراكيّة، وتلقى التأييد المعنوي الكبير من حركة عدم الانحياز التي ضمت تقريباً كلّ الدول التي تحرّرت من الاستعمار، فأصبحت تؤلف ثقلاً دولياً راجحاً في الرأي العام الدولي وفي محافل الأمم المتحدة. فضلاً عن أنّ القضية الجزائرية قسمت الرأي العام في فرنسة نفسها وهددت بنشوب أزمات داخلية. وانتهى الأمر على يد الجنرال ديغول الذي تولى مقاليد الحكم سنة 1958، فاعترف بالهوية الجزائرية وعقدت مفاوضات في إفيان بين فرنسة وجبهة التحرير الجزائرية انتهت في آخر اجتماع لها في 7 آذار 1962 إلى استفتاء الجزائريين في تمّوز من السنة نفسها فاختاروا بأكثرية 91.8 بالمئة الاستقلال، مع تخيير المستوطنين بين الجنسية الجزائرية أو القبول بوضع الأجانب في الجزائر. وقد بلغت الجزائر كامل استقلالها سنة 1962 بعد أن سقط في ساحات المعارك أكثر من مليون شهيد وأطلق على الثورة بحق اسم «ثورة مليون شهيد».

أصبحت قضية الجزائر مثالاً يحتذى للشعوب المحرومة من حقوقها تحت نير الاستعمار الاستيطاني الذي لم تزل آثاره من عالم ما بعد الحرب تماماً، وتمثل بمحنة الأفارقة، وهم الأكثرية الساحقة من سكّان جنوب إفريقية، المحرومين من حقوقهم السياسية التي أنكرها عليهم نظام التمييز العنصري. فقد كان استقلال جنوب إفريقية عن بريطانية استقلالاً للمستوطنين فقط، مع استعمار سواد الشعب الإفريقي، ولم تفلح قرارات الأمم المتحدة وحركات المناهضة الوطنية والدولية بتحريره. إضافة إلى أن النظام العنصري ظل حتى مطلع التسعينات من القرن العشرين يحتفظ باستعماره لجنوب غربي أفريقية (ناميبيا) على الرغم من إعلان الأمم المتحدة في 1970 ومحكمة العدل الدولية في 1971 عدم شرعية الإبقاء على هذا الإقليم محروماً من حقه في تقرير المصير وضرورة انسحاب المستعمر منه.

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تصفية الاستعمار في أفريقيا

تصفية الاستعمار البريطاني في أفريقيا

وقد تطوّر نضال الأكثرية الإفريقية من أجل التحرر والاستقلال تحت قيادة «منظمة شعب جنوب غربي إفريقية» كما بدأت حكومة جنوب إفريقيا بتطوير مواقفها والتسليم بإمكان الاستقلال، بضغط من الأمم المتحدة ووساطة من الولايات المتحدة. وبدأت المفاوضات لنقل السلطة وقبلت جنوب إفريقيا أخيراً انضمام منظمة تحرير ناميبية إليها. وبعد أن اتفقت الدول التي كانت تتعارض مصالحها في المنطقة جنوب إفريقية وكوبة وأنغولة على سحب قواتها والدعوة إلى انتخابات عامة في تشرين الثاني 1989، فازت منظمة تحرير ناميبيا بـ57 % من الأصوات كما انتخب زعمي المنظمة «سام نوجوما» رئيساً للجمهورية الجديدة، وتمّ استقلال هذا الإقليم في 21آذار سنة 1990 وسميّت الدولة الجديدة «ناميبيا» وقبلت عضواً في الأمم المتحدة في 23 أبريل من السنة ذاتها ثم عضواً في منظمة الوحدة الإفريقية.

اليابان

U.S. troops in Korea, September 1945

الاستعمار الاستيطاني الجديد: فلسطين

كذلك فإنّ من بين مظاهر الاستعمار الاستيطاني الجديد حرمان الشعب العربي الفلسطيني حقوقه الوطنية واستقلاله بعد تشريد عدد كبير من أبنائه، واحتلال أراضيه من قبل الكيان الصهيوني الذي تدعمه عسكرياً ومادياً ومعنوياً القوى الامبريالية الجديدة وتقف سداً منيعاً دون ممارسة هذا الشعب لحقه في تقرير المصير، طبقاً لقرارات الأمم المتحدة.

وقد تميزت سنوات السبعينات والثمانينات من القرن العشرين بتحرّر بقيّة المستعمرات وتصفية نظم الحماية، وانتظام محميات الخليج العربي في دول مستقلة: عُمان، والإمارات العربية المتحدة، وقطر، والبحرين، والكويت، بعدما أفلحت محمية عدن بإزاحة نير السيطرة البريطانية عنها وأصبحت في دولة اليمن المستقلة.

وشهدت هذه السنوات انهيار الاستعمار الاستيطاني البرتغالي في كل من غينية بيسّاو، وموزامبيق وأنغولا التي بلغت استقلالها الكامل، وتمّ جلاء الاحتلال الأجنبي عن الجزر المنتثرة في المحيطين الهندي والهادئ وبحر الكاريبي.

لكنّ وسائل السيطرة بأساليب غير أساليب القوّة والاستعمار لم تختف من العلاقات الدولية؛ ويعني اصطلاح «الاستعمار الجديد» ما ينشأ في دول مستقلة من نفوذ أجنبي، سياسي واقتصادي وثقافي، يؤثّر تأثيراً واضحاً في سيادة هذه الدول وحريتها في اختيار شكل حكمها، وفي تعزيز اقتصادها القومي، واتجاهات سياستها الخارجية، ومن هذا القبيل اتساع النفوذ السياسي والاقتصادي لعدد من الدول الغربية وانتشار القواعد العسكرية لبعضها في أرجاء المعمورة واتخاذ تدابير مسلّحة تقارب مفهومات الغزو والاحتلال في عدد من الحالات. كما أن الشركات الكبرى المتعددة الجنسيّات أصبحت قادرة على التحكم بجزء لا يستهان به من اقتصاد عدد من الدول المستقلّة.

لقد تعدّدت أساليب هذه السيّطرة، وافتنّت دول الاستعمار الجديد في إيجاد المسوّغات لها، وأصبحت تستحق النظر ظاهرةً من الصحيح القول إنها ابتدأت بفكرة «الامبراطوريّات غير الرسميّة» التي ظهرت في أوائل القرن العشرين ولكنّ تطورّها قد يجعل منها إحدى السمات البارزة في هذا القرن ـ الموصوف عادة بالنزعة العارمة للتخلّص من الاستعمار القديم والحديث.^[4].

الوقع على المستعمرات السابقة

منظمات ما بعد الاستعمار

المنظمات الدولية الأربعة التي تتبع عضويتها بشكل كبير نمط الامبراطوريات الاستعمارية السابقة.

بسبب التاريخ والثقافة المشتركة، أنشأت القوى الاستعمارية السابقة مؤسسات ربطت بشكل فضفاض مستعمراتها السابقة. العضوية طوعية، وفي بعض الحالات يمكن إلغاؤها إذا فقدت الدولة العضو بعض المعايير الموضوعية (عادة ما تكون مطلباً للحكم الديمقراطي). تخدم المنظمات أغراضاً ثقافية واقتصادية وسياسية بين الدول الأعضاء، على الرغم أنه لا يوجد بينها من أصبحت منظمة بارزة سياسياً ككيان في حد ذاته.

القوة الاستعمارية السابقة	المنظمة	تأسست
المملكة المتحدة	كومنولث الأمم	1931
فرنسا	الاتحاد الفرنسي	1946
	التجمع الفرنسي	1958
	الفرانكفونية	1970
إسپانيا والپرتغال	الاتحاد اللاتيني	1954
إسپانيا والپرتغال	منظمة الدول الإبرو-أمريكية	1991
الپرتغال	تجمع بلدان اللغة الپرتغالية	1996
روسيا	كومنولث الدول المستقلة	1991
الولايات المتحدة	الكومونلث	1934
الولايات المتحدة	Freely Associated States	1982
هولندا	De Nederlandse Unie	1949
هولندا	De Nederlandse Taalunie	1980

اغتال القادة المناهضون للاستعمار

Gandhi in 1947, with Lord Louis Mountbatten, Britain's last Viceroy of India, and his wife Vicereine Edwina Mountbatten.

وستتضمن قائمة القادة المقتولين "غير الشاملة":

كان تِيْرَادَينْتِيس عضوًا قياديًا في حركة الثورية البرازيلية المعروفة باسم إنكونفيدينشيا مينيرا، ضد الإمبراطورية البرتغالية. حارب من أجل جمهورية برازيلية مستقلة.
اغتيل مهاتما غاندي، الزعيم السلمي لـحركة استقلال الهند في عام 1948 على يد ناتورام گودسى.
روبن أم نيوبي، زعيم اتحاد شعوب الكاميرون (اتحاد الوطنيين الكونغوليين)، الذي قُتل على يد الفرنسيين في 13 سبتمبر 1958.
بارتيليمي بوگندا، زعيم حركة قومية جمهورية إفريقيا الوسطى، الذي توفي في حادث تحطم طائرة في 29 مارس 1959، قبل ثمانية أيام من الانتخابات الأخيرة للحقبة الاستعمارية.
فيليكس رولان موميه، خليفة روبن أم نيوب على رأس اتحاد شعب الكاميرون، اغتيل في جنيف في عام 1960 على يد (المخابرات الفرنسية).^[5]
اغتيل باتريس لومومبا، أول رئيس وزراء لـجمهورية الكونغو الديمقراطية، في 17 يناير 1961.
اغتيل بوروندي القومي لويس رواغاسور في 13 أكتوبر 1961، بينما قُتل بيير نگنداندوموي، أول رئيس وزراء بوروندي الهوتو في 15 يناير 1965.
Sylvanus Olympio, the first president of Togo, was assassinated on January 13, 1963.
Mehdi Ben Barka, the leader of the Moroccan National Union of Popular Forces (UNPF) and of the Tricontinental Conference, which was supposed to prepare in 1966 in Havana its first meeting gathering national liberation movements from all continents – related to the Non-Aligned Movement, but the Tricontinal Conference gathered liberation movements while the Non-Aligned were for the most part states – was "disappeared" in Paris in 1965, allegedly by Moroccan agents and French police officers.
Nigerian leader Ahmadu Bello was assassinated in January 1966 during a coup which toppled Nigeria's post-independence government.
Eduardo Mondlane, the leader of FRELIMO and the father of Mozambican independence, was assassinated in 1969. Both the Portuguese intelligence or the Portuguese secret police PIDE/DGS and elements of FRELIMO, have been accused of killing Mondlane.
Mohamed Bassiri, Sahrawi leader of the Movement for the Liberation of Saguia el Hamra and Wadi el Dhahab was "disappeared" in El Aaiún in 1970, allegedly by the Spanish Legion.
Amílcar Cabral was killed on January 20, 1973 by PAIGC rival Inocêncio Kani, with the help of Portuguese agents operating within the PAIGC.

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Timeline of independence

This list includes formerly non-self-governing territories, such as colonies, protectorates, condominia, and leased territories. Changes in status of autonomy leading up to and after independence are not listed, and some dates of independence may be disputed. For details, see each national history.

18th century to World War I

Year	Colonizer	Decolonized state	Event
1776	Great Britain	الولايات المتحدة	Thirteen colonies of British America declare their independence a year into a general insurrection. Recognized by Great Britain in 1783 at the Treaty of Paris.
1804	France	Haiti	After initially revolting only to restore French control, Saint-Domingue declares its independence as Haiti. Recognized by France in 1825 in exchange for a ₣150 million indemnity, financed through French banks.
1810	Spain	West Florida (today part of the الولايات المتحدة)	West Florida declares independence, but is almost immediately annexed by the United States as part of Orleans Territory under its claims from the Louisiana Purchase. Annexation recognized by Spain in 1819.
1811	Spain	Paraguay	Paraguay achieves independence. Recognised by Spain in 1880.
		Venezuela	Venezuela declares its independence. During its revolution, it joins Gran Colombia, before seceding to achieve independence in 1830.
		Gran Colombia (today Colombia and Panama)	Cartagena declares its independence. Cundinamarca and the United Provinces of New Granada followed suit in 1813. Briefly retaken by Spain, saved by Simon Bolivar and united as Colombia in 1821. Panama seceded 1903.
1815	Spain	Uruguay	The Federal League declares its independence of the restored Spanish crown, after having successfully revolted against Napoleonic Spain in 1811. Attacked by Portugal, some provinces united with the future Argentina; others, after a protracted struggle, successfully formed Uruguay in 1828. Recognized by Spain in 1870.
1816	Spain	Argentina	The United Provinces of South America formally declare their independence of the restored Spanish crown, after having successfully revolted against Napoleonic Spain in its name in 1810. Became Argentina in 1826. Recognized by Spain in 1859.^[6]
1818	Spain	Chile	Chile declares its independence of the restored crown, after having unsuccessfully revolted against Napoleonic Spain in its name in 1810. Recognized by the Spanish in 1844.
1819	Spain	East Florida (today part of the الولايات المتحدة)	The Adams-Onís Treaty cedes Florida to the United States in exchange for US cession of its claims to Texas under the Louisiana Purchase and in exchange for settling $5 million of its residents' claims against Spain.
1821	Spain	Mexico	Following a failed liberal insurrection in New Spain, the colony declares its independence as the Mexican Empire after a liberal mutiny succeeds in Spain. Recognised by Spain in 1836. Texas independent in 1836, annexed to the United States in 1845. Upper California and New Mexico lost to the United States in 1848.
		Central America (today Nicaragua, Honduras, Costa Rica, Guatemala, El Salvador, and part of Mexico)	Chiapas and then all of Guatemala declares its independence as part of the Mexican Empire. Independent from Mexico in 1823 as the Federal Republic of Central America. Divided into Nicaragua, Honduras, Costa Rica, and Guatemala in 1838; remnant renamed El Salvador in 1841.
		Dominican Republic	Santo Domingo declares independence as Spanish Haiti, requests union with Gran Colombia, and is swiftly annexed by Haiti. It will achieve independence in 1844 only to restore Spanish rule in 1861.
		Peru	A Chilean expeditionary force declares the independence of Peru. Bolivia formed from Upper Peru in 1825. Recognized by Spain in 1879.
	Ottoman Empire	Greece	Greece revolts. Recognized by the Porte in 1832 in the Treaty of Constantinople.
1822	Spain	Ecuador	Quito declares independence as a part of Gran Colombia. Independent from Colombia as Ecuador in 1830. Recognized by Spain in 1840.
1822	Portugal	Brazil	Brazil, long the seat of the Portuguese royal government, declares independence under a rogue prince after the king returns to Lisbon. Recognized by Portugal in 1825.
1847	الولايات المتحدة	Liberia	Liberia declares its independence as an organised nation. Independence was officially recognized by the United States in 1862
1852	Ottoman Empire	Montenegro	Montenegro declares its independence. Recognized in 1878 at the Congress of Berlin. Voluntarily united with Serbia as Yugoslavia in 1918.
1864	United Kingdom	Ionian Islands (today part of Greece)	The United States of the Ionian Islands, a majority Greek protectorate, peaceably united with modern Greece by the Treaty of London.
1865	Spain	Dominican Republic	Santo Domingo regains independence as the Dominican Republic after four years as a restored colony.
1867	United Kingdom	Canada	Britain grants internal autonomy to Canada, while keeping control of foreign policy. Britain retained legal powers over Canada until 1931, and a role in Canada constitutional law until 1982.
1869	Ottoman Empire	Serbia	Serbia declares its full independence from the Ottoman Empire. Recognized in 1878 at the Congress of Berlin.
1877	Ottoman Empire	Romania	The United Principalities of Romania declare their independence. Recognized in 1878 at the Congress of Berlin.
1898	Spain	Cuba, Philippines	The United States (barred from annexing Cuba itself by the Teller Amendment) forces Spain to abjure its own claims to the island in the Treaty of Paris ending the Spanish–American War. Various other Spanish colonies are purchased for $20 million, including the Philippines, causing an immediate backlash among the Philippine revolutionaries who have been fighting for independence since 1896. The Philippine Republic would fall to the United States in 1901 following the capture of President Emilio Aguinaldo. In 1935, the Insular Government over the Philippines was replaced with the Commonwealth.
1900	United Kingdom	Australia	Britain grants internal autonomy to Australia, while keeping control of foreign policy. Britain retained legal powers over Australia until 1942, and shared a role in Australia constitutional law until 1986.
1902	الولايات المتحدة	Cuba	Cuba granted independence. Guantanamo Bay is leased in perpetuity as a US Naval base.
1908	Ottoman Empire	Bulgaria	Bulgaria, largely autonomous since the Congress of Berlin, declares itself fully independent of the Ottoman Empire.
1910	United Kingdom	South Africa	Britain grants internal autonomy to South Africa, while keeping control of foreign policy. Britain retained legal powers over South Africa until 1931, and shared a head of state until 1961.
1912	Ottoman Empire	Albania	Albania declares independence. Recognized in the 1913 Treaty of London.

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Interwar period

Year	Colonizer	Decolonized state	Event
1916	Russia	Poland	The independence of Russian Poland as a new kingdom is proclaimed by occupying German and Austro-Hungarian forces. Recognized by Soviet Russia in the 1918 Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. Absorbed Polish regions from Germany, Austria, and Hungary following World War I and from Soviet Russia and Soviet Ukraine after the Polish-Soviet War.
1917	Russia	Finland	Finland declares its independence. Recognized in the 1918 Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, although Karelia remained disputed.
		Crimea (since 1954 de jure part of Ukraine, since 2014 de facto part of Russia)	Crimean People's Republic declares independence but Crimean Tatar forces hold out less than a month against the Bolsheviks.
		Idel-Ural (today part of Russia)	Volga Tatars declare independence of the Idel-Ural State; other ethnic groups including Volga Germans and Bashkirs join them. The republic was crushed by the Bolsheviks a few months later.
		Kazakhstan	Kazakhs declare independence of the Alash Autonomy. This lasted for less than three years before being defeated by the Bolsheviks.
1918	Russia	Azerbaijan, Georgia, Armenia	The Azerbaijan Democratic Republic, the Republic of Georgia and the Republic of Armenia declare independence on May 26–28. All three would be conquered by the Red Army in 1920–1921.
		Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania	Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania declare independence. All three were initially able to secure their independence by 1920; however, on 1940, all three were invaded by the Soviet Union and were later annexed.
		Ukraine	The Ukrainian People's Republic (UNR) declared independence in January 1918, and was recognized by several states from February, including by Bolshevik Russia in the March Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. It would lose its international recognition after the Paris Peace Conference, and its territory to the Russian-created Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic, which was formally subordinated to Moscow by the formation of the Soviet Union in 1922.
	Austria-Hungary	Czechoslovakia (today the Czech Republic and Slovakia)	Bohemia, Moravia, and sections of Silesia, Galicia, and Hungary declare their independence as Czechoslovakia. Recognized in the Treaty of Trianon in 1920. Slovakia independent from 1939 to 1945. Carpathian Ruthenia independent in 1939, eventually annexed to Ukraine. Secession of Slovakia in 1993.
		State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs (today Croatia, Slovenia, and Bosnia and Herzegovina)	Croatia-Slavonia and Dalmatia declare their independence as the State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs and swiftly unites with Serbia as the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes which later became Yugoslavia.
		Ukraine	The West Ukrainian People's Republic (ZUNR) declared independence November 1, 1918, and symbolically united with the Ukrainian People's Republic on January 22, 1919. It allied with Poland in the 1920 Treaty of Warsaw, but was absorbed after the 1921 Peace of Riga.
	Denmark	Iceland	After the signing of the Danish–Icelandic Act of Union, Iceland becomes a sovereign state in personal union with Denmark.
1919	United Kingdom	Afghanistan	End of the protectorate over Afghanistan, when the United Kingdom accepts the presence of a Soviet ambassador in Kabul.
1920	Ottoman Empire	Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Palestine (today Israel and Palestine)	The San Remo conference establishes League of Nations mandates from Ottoman Mesopotamia and Syria. The 1920 Iraqi revolt prevents the mandate over Mesopotamia from being enacted, and was replaced with the Anglo-Iraqi Treaty in 1922. In 1926, Greater Lebanon became the Lebanese Republic.
1921	China	Mongolia	Communist Mongolian revolutionaries, with the help of the Red Army, expel the Chinese government presence from Outer Mongolia. Mongolia was recognized by the United Nations in 1961.
1922	United Kingdom	Ireland	Following insurgency by the Irish Republican Army, most of Ireland separates from the United Kingdom as the Irish Free State, remaining as a dominion. Northern Ireland, the north-east area of the island, remains within the United Kingdom.
1922	United Kingdom	Egypt	Egypt is unilaterally granted independence by the United Kingdom. However, four matters (imperial communications, defence, the protection of foreign interests and minorities, as well as Sudan) remain "absolutely reserved to the discretion" of the British government, which greatly restricts the full exercise of Egyptian sovereignty.
1926	United Kingdom	Canada, Ireland, South Africa	The Balfour Declaration declares the dominions of the British empire as autonomous Communities within the British Empire, equal in status.
1930	United Kingdom	Weihai (today part of China)	The United Kingdom returns the leased port territory at Weihaiwei to China.
1931	United Kingdom	Canada, Ireland, South Africa	The Statute of Westminster grants virtually full independence to Canada, the Irish Free State, and the Union of South Africa when it declares the British parliament incapable of passing law over these former colonies without their own consent. This doesn't take effect over New Zealand, Newfoundland, and the Commonwealth of Australia, until independently ratified by these dominions.
1932	United Kingdom	Iraq	End of League of Nations Mandate over Iraq. The United Kingdom continues to station troops in the country and influence the Iraqi government until 1958.
1940	France	Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia^[7]	After the Fall of France, the new French State de facto cedes control of French Indochina to Japan, weakening the colonial system that would make it difficult for France to control their colony once it is returned to them.
1941	Italy	Eritrea, Somalia, Ethiopia^[8]	Eritrea, Tigray Province (appended to it), Italian Somaliland, and Ethiopia are taken by the Allies after an uneasy occupation of Ethiopia since 1935–36, and no longer joined as one colonial federal state. Ethiopia, the only African state to escape the Scramble for Africa, returns to being a sovereign nation, while the Ogaden desert (disputed by Somalia) remains under British military control until 1948.
1942	United Kingdom	Australia	Australia ratifies the Statute of Westminster.
1942	Netherlands^[9]	Indonesia^[10]	Japanese seize control of the Dutch East Indies. Throughout the occupation the Japanese dismantle the colonial system and stirs national fervour among the native population, which will cause major problems for the Dutch when the colony is returned to them.
1943	France	Lebanon	Lebanon declares independence, effectively ending the French mandate (previously together with Syria).
1944	Denmark^[11]	Iceland	Following a plebiscite, Iceland formally becomes a republic, ending the personal union between Denmark and Iceland.
1945	Japan	Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia^[7]	In the last months of World War II, Japanese forces in French Indochina overthrew the largely powerless colonial administration and declare the independence of the Vietnam (which was formed from three separate colonies) Cambodia, and Laos. After the surrender of Japan, all three states would be disestablished and, in theory, returned to French colonial rule.
		Korea (today North Korea and South Korea)	After the surrender of Japan, Korea is occupied by the Soviet Union and the United States.
		Taiwan (today de jure part of China, de facto an independent state with limited recognition), Mengjiang (today part of China), Manchuria (today part of China)^[12]	After the surrender of Japan, Mengjiang and Manchukuo are returned to China. Taiwan is put under the post-war occupation of China in accordance with the arrangement in General Order No. 1; this would prove to very useful for Nationalist-led China, as within four years, Taiwan would serve as a refuge for Chiang Kai-shek and his forces following the Communist takeover of China.
		Indonesia^[10]	After the surrender of Japan, the Dutch East Indies is returned to the Netherlands.
	Netherlands	Indonesia	However, just two days later, the Dutch East Indies declares independence, which after four years of armed struggle and mounting international pressure is recognised by the Netherlands in 1949.
	France	Vietnam	Before France is able to regain control over French Indochina, Vietnam declares independence. France will recognize Vietnam in 1954 following a humiliating defeat, although between that year and 1975 Vietnam was divided into a communist north and a largely anti-communist south under American influence, before reuniting under North Vietnam rule.

Cold War

Year	Colonizer	Decolonized state	Event
1946	الولايات المتحدة	Philippines	The treaty of Manila is signed, effectively ending over 380 years of foreign domination in the Philippines. United States military bases continued to be stationed in the islands.
	United Kingdom	Jordan	The former Emirate of Transjordan became an independent Hashemite kingdom when the United Kingdom relinquishes its League of Nations mandate.
	France	Syria	The former Mandate of Syria became an independent Republic.
1947	United Kingdom	New Zealand	New Zealand ratifies the Statute of Westminster 1931.
1947	United Kingdom	India, Pakistan (today Pakistan and Bangladesh)	The British government leaves India, which is partitioned into the secular, but Hindu-majority state of India and the Muslim state of Pakistan (the eastern half of which will later became independent as Bangladesh in 1971).
1948	United Kingdom	Myanmar, Sri Lanka	Burma, which had separated from British India earlier and did not gain independence in 1947, and Ceylon, which despite being a part of the Indian subcontinent was only briefly a part of British India, became independent.
	United Kingdom	Israel, Palestine	The Jewish-controlled part of Palestine declares independence as the state of Israel; the remainder of Palestine became de facto part of the Arab states of Egypt (Gaza strip) and Transjordan (West Bank).
	الولايات المتحدة	South Korea	The Republic of Korea is established in the southern part of the Korean peninsula.
	Soviet Union	North Korea	The Democratic People's Republic of Korea is established in the northern part of the peninsula.
1949	United Kingdom	Newfoundland (today part of Canada)	The Dominion of Newfoundland joins Canada.
1951	United Kingdom	Eritrea	The Mandate of Eritrea is given by the British to Ethiopia.
1951	France, United Kingdom	Libya	The British-controlled Tripolitania and the French-controlled Fezzan unifies with the Emirate of Cyrenaica to form the Kingdom of Libya.
1953	France	Cambodia, Laos	The two non-Vietnamese protectorates of French Indochina, Cambodia and Laos, became independent.
1954	France	Pondicherry (today part of India)	The Puducherry enclave is incorporated into India.
1954	United Kingdom	Suez Canal (today part of Egypt)	In the aftermath of July 23 revolution, the United Kingdom withdraws from the last part of Egypt it controls: the Suez Canal zone.
1956	United Kingdom, Egypt (de jure, de facto just United Kingdom)	Sudan (today Sudan and South Sudan)	Egypt ends it claims of sovereignty over Sudan, forcing the United Kingdom to do the same. The southern non-Arab half will later became an independent state in 2011.
	France	Tunisia	Tunisia achieve independence.
	France, Spain	Morocco	After large-scale protests forces France to return the sultan of Morocco, the French-controlled territories, most of the Spanish-controlled territories (except Cape Juby and Ifni) and the Tangier International Zone are united into an independent kingdom.
1957	United Kingdom	Ghana	The Gold Coast became independent, initiating the decolonization of sub-Saharan Africa.
1957	United Kingdom	Malaysia	The Federation of Malaya became independent.
1958	France	Guinea	After being the only colony to vote against the 1958 French constitution, Guinea is granted independence.
1960	United Kingdom	Cyprus (today de facto Cyprus and Northern Cyprus)	Most of Cyprus became independent, though the UK retains sovereign control over Akrotiri and Dhekelia. In 1983, the northern Turkish half of Cyprus declared its independence (this state is only recognized by Turkey).
	United Kingdom	Nigeria	Nigeria became independent.
	Italy, United Kingdom	Somalia (today de facto Somalia and Somaliland)	British Somaliland became independent. As the State of Somaliland, the former British Somaliland protectorate merges as scheduled five days later with the Trust Territory of Somaliland (the former Italian Somaliland) to form the Somali Republic. (In the aftermath of the Somali Civil War, the former British Somaliland split from Somalia and has been an internationally unrecognized independent state called Somaliland since 1991.)
	France	Ivory Coast, Benin, Mauritania, Niger, Burkina Faso, Mali Federation (today Mali and Senegal)	All remaining colony members of French West Africa became independent, including Côte d'Ivoire, Dahomey, Mauritania, Niger, Upper Volta, French Sudan, and Senegal (the last two originally as a single-entity called the Mali Federation; within the same year the two split off into Mali and Senegal).
		Chad, Central African Republic, Republic of the Congo, Gabon	All colony members of French Equatorial Africa became independent, including Chad, Ubangi-Shari, the French Congo, and Gabon.
		Cameroon, Togo	The United Nations trust territories of Cameroun and French Togoland became independent.
		Madagascar	Madagascar became independent.
	Belgium	Democratic Republic of the Congo	The Belgian Congo (also known as Congo-Kinshasa, later renamed Zaire and presently the Democratic Republic of the Congo) became independent.
1961	United Kingdom	Tanzania	The United Nations trust territory of Tanganyika became independent.
		Sierra Leone	Sierra Leone became independent.
		Kuwait	The United Kingdom ends its protectorate over the Sheikhdom of Kuwait.
		British Cameroons (today part of Nigeria and part of Cameroon)	After a referendum, United Nations trust territory of Cameroons is dissolved, with the northern Muslim half deciding to merge with Nigeria and the southern Christian half deciding to merge with Cameroon.
		South Africa	The Union of South Africa declares itself a republic.
	Portugal	Goa, Daman and Diu (today part of India)	The former coastal enclave colonies of Goa, Daman and Diu are taken over by India.
1962	United Kingdom	Uganda	Uganda achieves independence.
	United Kingdom	Jamaica, Trinidad and Tobago	With the collapse of the West Indies Federation, Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago became independent as separate entities.
	France	Algeria	Following the end of the Algerian War and the signing of the Évian Accords, both French and Algerian voters approve the independence of Algeria.
	Belgium	Rwanda, Burundi	Following a period of ethnic violence in Rwanda that led to abolition of its monarchy, Belgium ends its trusteeship over it and Burundi.
	New Zealand	Samoa	The South Sea UN trusteeship over Western Samoa (formerly German Samoa and nowadays called just Samoa) is relinquished.
1963	United Kingdom	Kenya, Zanzibar (today part of Tanzania)	The United Kingdom and the Sultanate of Zanzibar ceded its sovereignty over Kenya. Zanzibar, itself a British Protectorate, would also have its protectorate terminated in the same year. After the Zanzibar Revolution that occurred a year later, Zanzibar merged with Tanganyika, which promptly renamed itself the United Republic of Tanzania.
	United Kingdom	Sarawak (today part of Malaysia), North Borneo (today part of Malaysia), Singapore	Sarawak, North Borneo and Singapore merges with the independent Federation of Malaya, which promptly renamed itself Malaysia. Within two years, however, Singapore would be expelled from Malaysia.
	United Nations	Western New Guinea (today part of Indonesia)	Less than a year after Netherlands transferred Netherlands New Guinea to the United Nations, the United Nations Temporary Executive Authority transfers West Papua to Indonesia.
1964	United Kingdom	Zambia, Malawi	Following the dissolution of the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland, Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland declare independence.
1964	United Kingdom	Malta	The Mediterranean island of Malta became independent.
1965	United Kingdom	Zimbabwe	Southern Rhodesia declares independence as Rhodesia, but is not recognized due to its unwillingness to accommodate to black-majority rule.
		The Gambia	The Gambia receives independence.
		Maldives	The British protectorate over the Maldives archipelago in the Indian Ocean ends.
1966	United Kingdom	Barbados, Guyana	In the British West Indies, Barbados (which was a former member of the West Indies Federation) and British Guiana became independent.
1966	United Kingdom	Botswana, Lesotho	Near South Africa, Bechuanaland and Basutoland became independent.
1967	United Kingdom	South Yemen (today part of Yemen)	On the Arabian peninsula, the Protectorate of South Arabia and the Federation of South Arabia became independent as a single entity called the People's Democratic Republic of Yemen (or South Yemen). In 1990, South Yemen merged with the Yemen Arab Republic (or North Yemen), which promptly renamed itself as the Republic of Yemen.
1968	United Kingdom	Mauritius	Mauritius achieves independence.
	United Kingdom	Swaziland	The Kingdom of Swaziland has its protectorate terminated.
	Spain	Equatorial Guinea	Spanish Guinea achieves independence.
	Australia, New Zealand, United Kingdom (de jure, de facto just Australia)	Nauru	Australia relinquishes UN trusteeship (nominally shared by the United Kingdom and New Zealand) of Nauru in the South Sea.
1970	United Kingdom	Oman	The United Kingdom ends its protectorate over Muscat and Oman.
1971	United Kingdom	Fiji, Tonga	In Oceania, Fiji became independent, while the protectorate over the Kingdom of Tonga ends.
1971	United Kingdom	United Arab Emirates, Bahrain, Qatar	All seven members of the Trucial States became independent upon the termination of their protectorates, with six (Abu Dhabi, Ajman, Dubai, Fujairah, Sharjah, and Umm al-Quwain) forming the United Arab Emirates; the seventh, Ras al-Khaimah, would join the UAE a year after. Two other Arab monarchies in the Persian Gulf, Bahrain and Qatar (which despite discussions of joining the UAE were not considered part of the Trucial States) also became independent as their British protectorates are lifted.
1973	United Kingdom	The Bahamas	The Bahamas are granted independence.
1973	Portugal	Guinea-Bissau	After more than a decade of fighting, guerrillas unilaterally declare independence in the Southeastern regions of Portuguese Guinea. It would not be recognized by Portugal until a year later, in the aftermath of Carnation Revolution.
1974	United Kingdom	Grenada	Grenada, a former member of the West Indies Federation became independent.
1975	France	Comoros	The Comoros archipelago in the Indian Ocean off the coast of Africa is granted independence.
	Portugal	Angola, Mozambique	After the Carnation Revolution, the two other colonies who have been fighting against colonial rule, Angola and Mozambique achieve independence. East Timor declares independence, but is subsequently occupied and annexed by Indonesia nine days later.
		Cape Verde, São Tomé and Príncipe	After the Carnation Revolution, the Western African island groups of Cape Verde and São Tomé and Príncipe achieve independence.
		East Timor	After the Carnation Revolution, East Timor declares independence, but is subsequently invaded and occupied by Indonesia nine days later.
	Netherlands	Suriname	Surinam (also known as Dutch Guiana) achieves independence.
	Australia	Papua New Guinea	Released from Australian trusteeship, Papua New Guinea gains independence.
1976	United Kingdom	Seychelles	The Seychelles archipelago in the Indian Ocean off the African coast became independent (one year after granting of self-rule).
1976	Spain	Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic	The Spanish colonial rule is de facto terminated over the Western Sahara (then Rio de Oro), when the territory was passed on to and partitioned between Mauritania and Morocco (which annexes the entire territory in 1979), rendering the declared independence of the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic ineffective to the present day.
1977	France	Djibouti	French Somaliland, also known as the "French Territory of the Afars and the Issas" (after its dominant ethnic groups), gains independence.
1978	United Kingdom	Dominica	Dominica, a former member of the West Indies Federation, became independent.
1978	United Kingdom	Solomon Islands, Tuvalu	The Solomon Islands and the Ellice Islands (which previously split off from the Gilbert and Ellice Islands) became independent.
1979	الولايات المتحدة	Panama Canal (today part of Panama)	The United States promises to return the Panama Canal Zone (held under a regime sui generis since 1903) to the republic of Panama after 1999.
	United Kingdom	Kiribati	The Gilbert Islands became independent.
	United Kingdom	Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Saint Lucia	Saint Vincent and the Grenadines and Saint Lucia, both former members of the West Indies Federation, became independent.
1980	United Kingdom	Zimbabwe	In the aftermath of the Rhodesian Bush War, Rhodesia, which temporary regained its colonial status, became formally independent under black-majority rule.
1980	United Kingdom, France	Vanuatu	The joint Anglo-French colony of the New Hebrides became the independent island Republic of Vanuatu.
1981	United Kingdom	Belize, Antigua and Barbuda	In the British West Indies, British Honduras and Antigua and Barbuda (which was a former member of the West Indies Federation) became independent.
1982	United Kingdom	Canada	Canada gains full independence from the British parliament with the Canada Act 1982.
1983	United Kingdom	Saint Kitts and Nevis	Saint Kitts and Nevis (an associated state since 1963) became independent.
1984	United Kingdom	Brunei	The United Kingdom ends its protectorate over the Brunei sultanate.
1986	United Kingdom	Australia, New Zealand	Australia and New Zealand became fully independent with the Australia Act 1986 and the Constitution Act 1986.
1990	South Africa	Namibia	South West Africa, the only League of Nation mandate that did not become a United Nation trust territory via independence, became independent from South Africa. South Africa would continue hold on to Walvis Bay and the Penguin Islands until 1994.
	Soviet Union	Lithuania	Declared the end of Soviet occupation and restoration of its 1918 independence on March 11.
	الولايات المتحدة	Marshall Islands, Micronesia	The UN Security Council gives final approval to end the U.S. Trust Territory of the Pacific (dissolved already in 1986), finalizing the independence of the Marshall Islands and the Federated States of Micronesia, having been a colonial possession of the empire of Japan before UN trusteeship.
1991	Soviet Union	Estonia	Adopted a resolution on March 30, that its independent status had never been suspended and only subject to an illegal occupation since 1940, and another on August 20 restoring an Estonian republic.
		Latvia	Restored pre-Soviet-occupation independence on May 4, and full independence on August 21.
		Georgia	Declared independence on April 9 after a referendum.
		Belarus, Ukraine	Following a coup attempt by Russian hardliners against the Soviet government, Ukraine declared independence on August 24, and its people ratified this in a referendum on December 1, gaining international recognition, including by the Russian Republic, the following day. Belarus declared independence August 25. With Russia, agreed to dissolve the Soviet Union when they signed the Belavezha Accords on December 8.
		Moldova, Azerbaijan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Armenia, Turkmenistan, Russian Federation, Kazakhstan	With Belarus and Ukraine, the remaining Soviet republics signed the Almaty Protocol on December 21, agreeing to dissolve the Soviet Union and create a Commonwealth of Independent States. On December 25, Soviet president Gorbachev resigned and the Soviet Union was effectively dissolved.

Post–Cold War era

Year	Colonizer	Decolonized state	Event
1993	Ethiopia	Eritrea	Eritrea, a former Italian colony declares independence and is subsequently recognized.
1994	الولايات المتحدة	Palau	Palau (after a transitional period as a Republic since 1981, and before part of the U.S. Trust territory of the Pacific) becomes independent from its former trustee, having been a mandate of the Japanese Empire before UN trusteeship.
1997	United Kingdom	Hong Kong	The British overseas territory of Hong Kong is given to People's Republic of China.
1999	Portugal	Macau	Macau is given to People's Republic of China. It is the last in a series of coastal enclaves that militarily stronger powers had obtained through treaties from the Ming and Qing Empire which ruled China. Macau, like Hong Kong, is not organised into the existing provincial structure applied to other provinces of the People's Republic of China, but is guaranteed an autonomous system of government within the People's Republic of China as a "Special Administrative Region" or S.A.R.
2002	Indonesia	East Timor	East Timor formally achieves independence after a transitional UN administration, three years after Indonesia ended its quarter-century occupation of the former Portuguese colony.
2006	Serbia and Montenegro	Montenegro
2011	Sudan	South Sudan	South Sudan formally achieves independence.