أورليان

لمعلومات عن the term used for lepidopterists، انظر أورليان (علم الحشرات).
أورليان
Aurelian
امبراطور الامبراطورية الرومانية
Aureus of Aurelian minted in Mediolanum (modern Milan), Italy
إمبراطور روماني
العهدسبتمبر 270-سبتمبر أو أكتوبر 275
سبقهكوينتلوس
تبعهماركوس كلوديوس تاكيتوس
وُلِد9 سبتمبر, 214 أو 215
صرميوم (صرمسكا متروڤيتشا, صربيا)
توفيسبتمبر أو اكتوبر 275
Caenophrurium، تراقيا
الزوجUlpia Severina
الأنجالابنة واحدة
الاسم الكامل
Lucius Domitius Aurelianus (من ولادته حتى ارتقائه العرش);
Caesar Lucius Domitius Aurelianus Augustus (كإمبراطور)
الديانةHenotheist of Sol Invictus

قالب:Campaignbox Battles of Aurelian

لوقيوس دومـِتيوس أورليانوس Lucius Domitius Aurelianus[2] (9 سبتمبر 214 أو 215 -سبتمبر أو أكتوبر 275)يـُعرف إنگليزية: Aurelian، امبراطور روماني (270-275), كان الثاني من عدة "أباطرة-جنود" باهري النجاح ساعدوا الامبراطورية الرومانية على استعادة قوتها في أواخر القرن الثالث وأوائل القرن الرابع.

خلال حكمه، أعاد توحيد الامبراطورية بكاملها، بعد خمس عشرة سنة من التمرد، وفقدان ثلث أراضيها لإمبراطوريات منشقة (مملكة تدمر في الشرق والامبراطورية الغالية في الغرب) غزوات بربرية مدمرة. وقد أذنت نجاحاته ببدء نهاية أزمة القرن الثالث للامبراطورية.

Born in modest circumstances, most likely in Moesia Superior, he entered the Roman army in 235 and climbed up the ranks. He went on to lead the cavalry of the emperor Gallienus, until Gallienus' assassination in 268. Following that, Claudius Gothicus became emperor until his own death in 270. Claudius' brother Quintillus then ruled for three months, before Aurelian took the empire for himself.

Aurelian was chosen Roman emperor by the Illyriciani as one of themselves.[3] During his reign, he defeated the Alamanni after a devastating war. He also defeated the Goths, Vandals, Juthungi, Sarmatians, and Carpi. Aurelian restored the Empire's eastern provinces after his conquest of the Palmyrene Empire in 273. The following year he conquered the Gallic Empire in the west, reuniting the Empire in its entirety. He was also responsible for the construction of the Aurelian Walls in Rome, the abandonment of the province of Dacia, and monetary reforms attempting to curb the devaluation of the Roman currency.

Although Domitian, two centuries earlier, was the first emperor who had demanded to be officially hailed as dominus et deus ('master and god'), these titles never occurred in written form on official documents until the reign of Aurelian.[4] His successes were instrumental in ending the crisis.

Early life

Many details about Aurelian's early life come from the Historia Augusta and are considered unreliable. Comparative research with other sources from his era has rendered some details more secure than others. Aurelian was born on 9 September, a date recorded in the Chronograph of 354.[5] The 6th-century chronicler John Malalas wrote that he died at the age of 61, implying a birth in 214.[6] However, Malalas' chronicle is often described as "frequently unreliable",[7] and so any date thence inferred must—absent corroborating evidence from more credible sources—remain tentative.

The Historia Augusta describes him both as a Pannonian from Sirmium and as a native of Dacia Ripensis "which he founded so that he would have been a Moesian". Pseudo-Victor and John Xiphilinus place his birthplace in an area between Dacia Ripensis and Macedonia (overlapping with Dacia Mediterranea). Modern research considers Dacia Ripensis as the more likely region. When he was born this region was part of Moesia Superior. Aurelian was an Illyrian[8][9][10] like several other emperors of the late 3rd century (Illyrian emperors) all of whom shared a common military background.[11] Pseudo-Victor describes his father as a colonus (tenant farmer) who worked the lands of a senator named Aurelius. Aurelian's father was probably a veteran of the Roman army. He married the daughter of Aurelius from whom Aurelian received his name via his mother. The Historia Augusta describes her as "priestess of Sol", whose worship Aurelian promoted as Emperor (Sol Invictus).[12] These two propositions, together with the tradition that the clan Aurelius had been entrusted with the maintenance of that deity's cult in Rome, inspired the notion that this could explain the devotion to the sun-god that Aurelian was to manifest as emperor. However, it seems that this extrapolation of unverifiable facts is now generally accepted as being no more than just that.[13]

Military service

Antoninianus of Aurelian minted in Serdica (Bulgaria), AD 274.

It is commonly accepted that Aurelian likely joined the army in 235, when he was around the age of twenty.[5] It is also generally assumed that, as a member of the lowest rank of society  – albeit a citizen[ب]  – he would have enlisted in the ranks of the legions. Saunders suggests that his career is more easily understood if it is assumed that his family was of Roman settler origins with a tradition of military service and that he enlisted as an equestrian.[14] This would have opened up for him the tres militia  – the three steps of the equestrian military career  – one of the routes to higher equestrian office in the Imperial Service.[ت] This could be a more expeditious route to senior military and procuratorial offices than that pursued by ex-rankers, although not necessarily less laborious.[ث] Although Saunders's conjecture as to Aurelian's early career is not supported by any evidence other than his nomen which could indicate Italian settler ancestry — and even this is contested — his rise to the highest ranks is more easily understood if he did not have to start from the bottom. His suggestion has not been taken up by other academic authorities.

Whatever his origins, Aurelian certainly must have built up a very solid reputation for military competence during the tumultuous mid-decades of the century. To be sure, the exploits detailed in the Historia Augusta vita Divi Aureliani, while not always impossible, are not supported by any independent evidence and one at least is demonstrably an invention typical of that author.[15] However, he was probably associated with Gallienus's cavalry army and shone as an officer of that elite unit because, when he finally emerged in a historically reliable context in the early part of the reign of Claudius II, he seems to have been its commander.[16]

Ulpius Crinitus

The existence of Ulpius Crinitus has been doubted by many historians.[17] If he did exist he would have been a dux of the Illyrian and Thracian legions.[18] Ulpius was reportedly born in the city of Italica, in modern Spain.[19] He took an interest in Aurelian's early career.[20] Aurelian was reportedly his deputy for a time. When a group of Goths invaded Illyria and Thrace, Ulpius had fallen ill, so he ordered Aurelian to deal with the invaders. Aurelian was designated as legate of the Third Legion. He used his force of 2,500 auxiliaries, and the armies of four Germanic chieftains to defeat the Goths in battle. Aurelian used the resources gained from the battles to enrich the provinces. After the battle, Crinitus thanked Valerian, the emperor at the time, for providing him with such a talented deputy.[17] Crinitus adopted Aurelian as his heir, either voluntarily or possibly through force.[21] Emperor Valerian attended the adoption ceremony which took place in the baths of Byzantium.[22] Following this, Crinitus disappeared from the historical record.[17][19] The Historia Augusta claims that Crinitus was portrayed, along with Aurelian, in the walls of the Temple of Sol, ordered built by Aurelian after his successful Palmyrene campaign. However, no traces of this building remain.[23]

Under Gallienus

Aurelian's successes as a cavalry commander ultimately made him a member of Emperor Gallienus' entourage. In 268 Gallienus travelled to Italy and fought Aureolus, his former general and now usurper for the throne. Driving Aureolus back into Mediolanum, Gallienus promptly besieged his adversary in the city. During the siege, the Emperor was assassinated. One source says Aurelian, who was present at the siege, participated and supported general Claudius for the purple — which is plausible.[24] In 268 or 269 Aurelian and his cavalry participated in the victory of Emperor Gallienus (or Emperor Claudius II Gothicus) over the Goths at the Battle of Naissus.[25][26]

Aurelian was married to Ulpia Severina, about whom little is known. She was from Dacia.[27] They are known to have had a daughter together.[28]

Under Claudius

Claudius was proclaimed emperor by the soldiers outside Mediolanum. The new emperor immediately ordered the Senate to deify Gallienus. Next, Claudius began to distance himself from those responsible for his predecessor's assassination, ordering the execution of those directly involved.[29] Aureolus was still besieged in Mediolanum and sought reconciliation with the new emperor, but Claudius had no sympathy for a potential rival. The emperor had Aureolus killed and one source implicates Aurelian in the deed, perhaps even signing the warrant for his death himself.[29]

During the reign of Claudius, Aurelian was promoted rapidly: he was given command of the elite Dalmatian cavalry and soon promoted to overall head of the army after the emperor and what had been Emperor Claudius' own position before his acclamation.[29] The war against Aureolus and the concentration of forces in Italy allowed the Alamanni to break through the Rhaetian limes along the upper Danube. Marching through Raetia and the Alps unhindered, they entered northern Italy and began pillaging the area. In early 269, emperor Claudius and Aurelian marched north to meet the Alamanni, defeating them at the Battle of Lake Benacus.[30]

While still dealing with the defeated enemy, news came from the Balkans reporting large-scale attacks from the Heruli, Goths, Gepids, and Bastarnae.[30] Claudius immediately dispatched Aurelian to the Balkans to contain the invasion as best he could until Claudius could arrive with his main army.[31] The Goths were besieging Thessalonica when they heard of emperor Claudius' approach, causing them to abandon the siege and pillage north-eastern Macedonia. Aurelian intercepted the Goths with his Dalmatian cavalry and defeated them in a series of minor skirmishes, killing as many as three thousand of the enemy. Aurelian continued to harass the enemy, driving them northward into Upper Moesia where emperor Claudius had assembled his main army. The ensuing battle was indecisive: the northward advance of the Goths was halted but Roman losses were heavy.[31]

Claudius could not afford another pitched battle, so he instead laid a successful ambush, killing thousands. However, the majority of the Goths escaped and began retreating south the way they had come. For the rest of year, Aurelian harassed the enemy with his Dalmatian cavalry.[32]

Ruins of Imperial Palace at Sirmium, today in Sremska Mitrovica

Now stranded in Roman territory, the Goths' lack of provisions began to take its toll. Aurelian, sensing his enemies' desperation, attacked them with the full force of his cavalry, killing many and driving the remainder westward into Thrace.[32] As winter set in, the Goths retreated into the Haemus Mountains, only to find themselves trapped and surrounded. The harsh conditions now exacerbated their shortage of food. However, the Romans underestimated the Goths and let their guard down, allowing the enemy to break through their lines and escape. Apparently emperor Claudius ignored advice, perhaps from Aurelian, and withheld the cavalry and sent in only the infantry to stop their break-out.

The determined Goths killed many of the oncoming infantry and were only prevented from slaughtering them all when Aurelian finally charged in with his Dalmatian cavalry. The Goths still managed to escape and continued their march through Thrace.[32] The Roman army continued to follow the Goths during the spring and summer of 270. Meanwhile, a devastating plague swept through the Balkans, killing many soldiers in both armies.

Emperor Claudius fell ill on the march to the battle and returned to his regional headquarters in Sirmium, leaving Aurelian in charge of operations against the Goths.[32] Aurelian used his cavalry to great effect, breaking the Goths into smaller groups which were easier to handle. By late summer the Goths were defeated: any survivors were stripped of their animals and booty and were levied into the army or settled as farmers in frontier regions.[32] Aurelian had no time to relish his victories; in late August news arrived from Sirmium that emperor Claudius was dead.[33]

الإمبراطور

صعوده للسلطة

لما مات كلوديوس الثاني أثناء انتشار وباء كان يفتك بالقوط والرومان على السواء (270) اختار الجيش خليفة له ابن فلاح إليراي. وكان دومتيوس أورليانس Domitius Aurelianus قد ارتفع من أوطأ الطبقات بقوة الجسم والإرادة؛ وقد لقبوه من قبيل السخرية "يد على سيف" وكان مما يشهد بعودة العقل إلى الجيش أنه اختار رجلاً يطلب عند غيره من النظام ما يطلبه عند نفسه.

When Claudius died, his brother Quintillus seized power with support of the Senate. With an act typical of the Crisis of the Third Century, the army refused to recognize the new emperor, preferring to support one of its own commanders: Aurelian was proclaimed emperor about August or September[34][35] (older sources argue for May)[36] by the legions in Sirmium. Aurelian defeated Quintillus' troops, and was recognized as emperor by the Senate after Quintillus' death. The claim that Aurelian was chosen by Claudius on his death bed[37] can be dismissed as propaganda; later, probably in 272, Aurelian put his own dies imperii at the day of Claudius' death, thus implicitly considering Quintillus a usurper.[38]

The Roman Empire in the 270s

Bronze bust labelled as Claudius Gothicus in the Santa Giulia Museum of Brescia (Italy). This bust has sometimes been identified as Aurelian.[ج]

In 248, Emperor Philip the Arab had celebrated the millennium of the city of Rome with great and expensive ceremonies and games, and the Empire had given a tremendous proof of self-confidence.[47] In the following years, the Empire had to face a huge pressure from external enemies, while, at the same time, dangerous civil wars threatened the empire from within, with usurpers weakening the strength of the state. Also, the economic substrate of the state, agriculture and commerce, suffered from the disruption caused by the instability. On top of this, an epidemic swept through the Empire around 250, greatly diminishing manpower[48] both for the army and for agriculture.

The end result was that the Empire could not endure the blow of the capture of Emperor Valerian in 260 by the Sassanids. The eastern provinces found their protectors in the rulers of the city of Palmyra, in Syria, whose autonomy grew until the formation of the Palmyrene Empire, which was successful in defending against the Sassanid threat. The western provinces, those facing the limes of the Rhine, seceded to form a third, autonomous state within the territories of the Roman Empire, which is now known as the Gallic Empire.

In Rome, the Emperor was occupied with internal menaces to his power and with the defence of Italia and the Balkans.

الفاتح والمصلح

Aurelian was a military commander, and during his reign he tried to keep legions' fidelity; this coin celebrated the CONCORDIA MILITVM, "harmony between the soldiers". Ironically, he was killed by Praetorian Guards.

وبفضل قيادته صد أعداء روما عن حدودها في كل مكان عدا نهر الدانوب، فهناك نزل أورليان عن داشيا للقوط لعلهم بذلك يقفون حاجزاً بين الإمبراطوريّة وبين غيرهم من البرابرة. ولعل هذا الاستسلام قد شجع الألمان والوندال على غزو إيطاليا، ولكن أورليان انتصر عليهم في ثلاث معارك وشتت شملهم. وكان يفكر في القيام بحملات حربية على أجزاء قاصية، ويخشى أن يهاجم الأعداء روما في أثناء غيابه، فأقنع مجلس الشيوخ بأن يوافق على صرف المال اللازم لبناء أسوار جديدة حول العاصمة، كما أقنع النقابات الطائفية بأن تقوم بهذا العمل وأخذت المُدن في جميع أنحاء الإمبراطوريّة تشيد الأسوار حولها، وكان قيامها بهذا العمل شاهداً على ضعف قوة الرومان وخاتمة السلم الرومانية.

إعادة توحيد الامبراطورية

ورأى أورليان أن الهجوم أفضل من الدفاع، ولذلك اعتزم أن يعيد مجد الإمبراطوريّة بالهجوم على زنوبيا في الشرق، ثم على تتريكس Tetricus الذي اغتصب السيادة على غالة بعد بستيوس. واسترد بروبس Probus قائد أورليان مصر من ابن زنوبيا في الوقت الذي كان هو نفسه يخترق بجيوشه بلاد البلقان،

ويعبر الهلسبنت، ويهزم جيش هذه الملكة في حمص ويحاصر عاصمتها. وحاولت الملكة أن تفر، وتستنجد بالفرس ولكنها أسرت، واستسلمت المدينة ونجت من التدمير، ولكن لنجينس قُتل (272). وبينما كان الإمبراطور عائداً على رأس جيشه إلى الهلسبنت، ثارت تَدْمُر وقتلت الحامية التي تركها فيها. فعاد إليها مسرعاً كسرعة قصير، وحاصر المدينة مرة أخرى واستولى عليها بعد قليل من الوقت، وأباحها الجنود يسلبون ويعيثون فيها فساداً، ودك أسوارها، وقضى مرة أخرى على تجارتها، وتركها تعود قرية صحراوية، وهكذا ظلت من ذلك الحين إلى الوقت الحاضر. وسارت زنوبيا مكبلة بالأغلال تزين موكب أورليان وهو داخل منتصر إلى رومة؛ وسمح لها بأن تقضي البقية الباقية من عمرها حرة إلى حد ما في تيبور .

هزيمته الألـَمانـّي

The Porta Asinara, a gate in the Aurelian Walls.

انتصاره على امبراطورية تدمر

Aurelian, personification of Sol, defeats the Palmyrene Empire, and celebrates ORIENS AVG, the Augustus Rising Sun.

في 272، وجه أورليان انتباهه إلى المقاطعات الشرقية المفقودة من الامبراطورية، فيما سـُمـِّي "مملكة تدمر" التي كانت تحكمها زنوبيا من مدينة تدمر Palmyra.[49] اقتطعت زنوبيا امبراطوريتها، التي ضمت سوريا، فلسطين، مصر وأجزاء كبيرة من آسيا الصغرى. في البداية، في البداية أورليان اُعـُرف به امبراطوراً، بينما ڤبلاتوس Vaballathus، ابن زنوبيا، حمل لقب rex وimperator ("ملك" و"القائد العسكري الأعلى")، ولكن أورليان قرر أن يغزو المقاطعات الشرقية بمجرد احساسه بأن لديه القوة الكافية لذلك.

تمت استعادة آسيا الصغرى بسهولة; كل المدن عدا بيزنطيوم و تيانا استسلمت له بأقل مقاومة. سقوط تيانا أصبح أسطورة مضرباً للأمثال; فحتى تلك النقطة كان أورليان يدمر كل مدينة تقاومه، إلا أنه استبقى تيانا بعد أن رأى في المنام فيلسوف القرن الأول أپولونيوس من تيانا، الذي كان يجله كثيراً. أپولونيوس ناشده، قائلاً: "أورليان، لو أردت أن تسـُود، فكف عن دماء الأبرياء! أورليان، إذا انتصرت، فكن رحيماً!" أياً كان السبب، فقد استبقى أورليان تيانا. وقد نجح الأسلوب; فاستسلمت له العديد من المدن بمجرد أن رأوا أن الامبراطور لن ينتقم منهم. في خلال ستة أشهر، كانت جيوشه تدق أبوبا تدمر، التي استسلمت عندما حاولت زنوبيا الهرب إلى الامبراطورية الساسانية. وانتهت "الامبراطورية التدمرية". لاحقاً تم الإمساك بزنوبيا وابنها واُجبرا على السير في شوارع روما في موكب انتصار أورليان. وبعد اشتباك قصير مع الفرس وآخر في مصر ضد المستولي على الحكم فيرموس، اضطر أورليان للعودة إلى تدمر في عام 273 عندما ثارت تلك المدينة عليه تارة أخرى. هذه المرة، سمح أورليان لجنوده بنهب المدينة، ولم تقم لتدمر قائمة منذ ذلك اليوم. أتت أمجاد إضافية إلى أورليان تطلبه; فقثد اُطلق عليه لقب Parthicus Maximus وRestitutor Orientis ("مستعيد الشرق").[38]

هزيمته للامبراطورية الغالية

وفي عام 274 هزم أورليان تتريكس عند شالون Chalons وعاد بعدئذ إلى غالة. واغتبطت روما بعودة سيادتها إليها فرحبت بالقائد الظافر ولقبته "مرجع العالم" restittor orbis. ثم وجه عنايته إلى واجبات السلم، فأعاد إلى الإمبراطوريّة سيئاً من النظام الاقتصادي بإصلاح النقد الروماني، وأعاد تنظيم الأداة الحكومية بأن طبق عليها نفس النظام الصارم الذي رد به الحياة إلى الجيش. وكان يعزو بعض ما تعانيه روما من الفوضى الأخلاقية والسياسية إلى تعدد الأديان والمذاهب فيها ويسعى لأن يوحد الأديان القديمة والجديدة ويوجهها إلى عبادة إله واحد هو إله الشمس، والإمبراطور نائبه في الأرض ولما أظهر الجيش ومجلس الشيوخ تشككهما، أبلغهما أن الله، لا اختيارهما، هو الذي جعله إمبراطوراً. وأنشأ في روما هيكلاً للشمس رائع الجمال، كان يرجو أن يمتزج فيه بعل حمص وإله المثراسية. وكانت الملكية المطلقة والتوحد تسيران وقتئذ جنباً إلى جنب، وكانت كلتاهما تسعى لأن تستعين بالأخرى؛ وكانت سياسة أورليان الدينية توصي بأن قوة الدولة آخذة في الاضمحلال، وأن قوة الدين آخذة في الارتفاع، وقد أصبح الملوك وقتئذ ملوكاً بنعمة الله. وكانت هذه هي فكرة الشرقيين عن الحكومة وهي فكرة وجدت في مصر، وبلاد الفرس، وسوريا؛ فلما قبلها أورليان عجل التيار الذي كان يحول الملكية إلى حكومة شرقية، وهو التيار الذي بدأ من عهد إلجابالس وانتهى عن دقلديانوس وقسطنطين.

الإصلاحات

Aurelian was a reformer, and settled many important functions of the imperial apparatus, dealing with the economy and religion. He restored many public buildings, reorganized the management of the food reserves, set fixed prices for the most important goods, and prosecuted misconduct by the public officers.[50]

الإصلاح الديني

Aurelian strengthened the position of the Sun god Sol Invictus as the main divinity of the Roman pantheon. His intention was to give to all the peoples of the Empire, civilian or soldiers, easterners or westerners, a single god they could believe in without betraying their own gods. The centre of the cult was a new temple, built in 274 and dedicated on 25 December[51] of that year in the Campus Agrippae in Rome, with great decorations financed by the spoils of the Palmyrene Empire.

During his short rule, Aurelian seemed to follow the principle of "one faith, one empire", which would not be made official until the Edict of Thessalonica. He appears with the title deus et dominus natus ("God and born ruler") on some of his coins, a style also later adopted by Diocletian. Lactantius argued that Aurelian would have outlawed all the other gods if he had had enough time. He was recorded by Christian historians as having organized persecutions.[52][53][54][55]

Felicissimus' rebellion and coinage reform

Aurelian's reign records the only uprising of mint workers. The rationalis Felicissimus, a senior public financial official whose responsibilities included supervision of the mint at Rome, revolted against Aurelian. The revolt seems to have been caused by the fact that the mint workers, and Felicissimus first, were accustomed to stealing the silver meant for the coins and producing coins of inferior quality. Aurelian wanted to eliminate this, and put Felicissimus on trial. The rationalis incited the mint workers to revolt: the rebellion spread in the streets, even if it seems that Felicissimus was killed immediately, presumably executed.

The Palmyrene rebellion in Egypt had probably reduced the grain supply to Rome, thus disaffecting the population to the emperor. This rebellion also had the support of some senators, probably those who had supported the election of Quintillus, and thus had something to fear from Aurelian.

Aurelian ordered the cohortes urbanae ("urban cohorts"), reinforced by some regular troops of the imperial army, to attack the rebelling mob: the resulting battle, fought on the Caelian Hill, marked the end of the revolt, even if at a high price (some sources give the figure, probably exaggerated, of 7,000 casualties).[50] Many of the rebels were executed; also some of the supporting senators were put to death. The mint of Rome was closed temporarily, and the institution of several other mints caused the main mint of the empire to lose its hegemony.[56]

His monetary reformation included the introduction of antoniniani containing 5% silver. They bore the mark XXI (or its Greek numeral form KA), which meant - according to some researchers[57] - that twenty of such coins would contain the same silver quantity of an old silver denarius.[58][ح] Considering that this was an improvement over the previous situation gives an idea of the severity of the economic situation Aurelian faced. The Emperor struggled to introduce the new "good" coin by recalling all the old "bad" coins before their introduction.[38]

A very large number of rare gold coins of Aurelian have been discovered as part of the Lava Treasure in Corsica, France, in the 1980s.[59]

Food distribution reforms

Rome had been distributing grain to its poorest citizens at a reduced price since 123 BC, and for free since 58 BC through the Cura Annonae. Aurelian is usually credited with changing or completing the change of the food distribution system from grain or flour to bread, and adding olive oil, salt, and pork to the products distributed to the populace. These products had been distributed sporadically before. Aurelian is also credited with increasing the size of the loaves of bread without increasing their price – a measure that was undoubtedly popular with the Romans who were not receiving free bread and other products through the dole.[60]

Aurelian is believed to have terminated Trajan's alimenta program. Roman prefect Titus Flavius Postumius Quietus was the last known official in charge of the alimenta, in 271. If Aurelian "did suppress this food distribution system, he most likely intended to put into effect a more radical reform." Indeed, around this time, Aurelian reformed the Cura Annonae to replace the dole of grain by a dole of bread, salt and pork, as well as subsidized prices for other goods such as oil and wine.[61]

اغتياله

وبينما كان أورليان يقود جيشاً مخترقاً به تراقية ليحسم الأمر بينه وبين فارس إذ اغتاله في عام 275 جماعة من ضباطه لأنهم خدعوا فظنوا أنه ينوي إعدامهم. وارتاع الجيش لكثرة ما ارتكبه هو نفسه من الجرائم فطلب إلى مجلس الشيوخ أن يختار مَن يخلف الإمبراطور القتيل؛ ولم يكن أحد يرغب في هذا الشرف الذي ينذر بالقتل على الدوام؛ وانتهى الأمر بأن رضي به تاستس لأنه كان وقتئذ في الخامسة والسبعين من عمره. وكان تاستس هذا يدعي أنه من نسل المؤرخ المسمى بهذا الاسم، وكانت تتمثل فيه جميع الفضائل التي كان ينادي بها ذلك الكاتب الموجز المتشائم؛ لكنه قضى نحبه من فرط الأعياء بعد ستة أشهر من جلوسه على العرش، وندم الجند على ندمهم، فعادوا إلى الاستئثار بالسلطة ونادوا بِبروبس Probus إمبراطوراً (276).

وفاته

Ulpia Severina, wife of Aurelian and Augusta since 274. Holder of the title of mater castrorum et senatus et patriae, typical of the women of the Severan dynasty, Severina possibly ruled alone between Aurelian's death and Tacitus election, thus being the only Roman Empress ruling in her own power.

In 275, Aurelian marched towards Asia Minor, preparing another campaign against the Sassanids: the deaths of Kings Shapur I (272) and Hormizd I (273) in quick succession, and the rise to power of a weakened ruler (Bahram I), set the possibility to attack the Sassanid Empire.

الذكرى

The city of Orléans in France is named after Aurelian. Originally named Cenabum, Aurelian rebuilt and renamed it Aurelianum or Aureliana Civitas ("city of Aurelian", cité d'Aurélien), which evolved into Orléans.[62]

ملاحظات

  1. ^ His full name, with honorific and victory titles, was Imperator Caesar Lucius Domitius Aurelianus pius felix invictus Augustus, pontifex maximus, Germanicus maximus, Gothicus maximus, Parthicus maximus, Carpicus maximus, tribunicia potestate VI, consul III, imperator, pater patriae, proconsul, restitutor orbis.[1]
  2. ^ Had Aurelian's family been enfranchised by virtue of the Constitutio Antoniniana (212) his nomen would have been "Aurelius".
  3. ^ The tres militia were: (i) prefecture of a cohort of auxiliary infantry; (ii) tribunate of a legionary cohort; and (iii) prefecture of an ala of auxiliary cavalry.
  4. ^ Compare the career of Pertinax who pursued the Tres Militia with those of Publius Aelius Aelianus, Lucius Aurelius Marcianus (both probably) and Traianus Mucianus (certainly) who rose e caliga, i.e. through the ranks.
  5. ^ The collection of Brescia includes four bronze busts that have been traditionally identified as two pairs belonging to Probus and Claudius II.[39][40] This bust (MR. 352) is sometimes identified as Aurelian.[41][42][43] The other supposed bust of Claudius (MR. 353) has also been identified as Probus.[44] The busts may all depict different people, however. It is virtually impossible to confirm their identity, as coin portraits after the 3rd century gradually lost individual features and often varied depending on the mint.[45][46]
  6. ^ Later emperors Tacitus and Carus would mint coins with the legends XI or IA, signalling a 10% of silver in the alloy.

References

  1. ^ Groag, col. 157.
  2. ^ اسمه الكامل، بالألقاب التفخيمية والانتصارية، كان Imperator Caesar Lucius Domitius Aurelianus Augustus, Germanicus Maximus, Gothicus Maximus, Parthicus Maximus, Restitutor Orientis, Restitutor Orbis.
  3. ^ Wilkes, John J. (1992). The Illyrians. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. p. 262. ISBN 0-631-19807-5. With the accession of M. Aurelius Claudius in AD 268 following his victory over the Goths at Naissus, the Empire came under the control of the leading Illyriciani at Sirmium. The new ruler came from southern Illyricum, either Dalmatia or Dardania, but his reign ended with his death from a plague at Sirmium in AD 270. Rejecting the Senate's proposal of Claudius' brother, the Illyriciani chose instead one of themselves, the formidable Domitius Aurelianus, probably a native of Sirmium.
  4. ^ Halsberghe, G. H. (1972). The Cult of Sol Invictus. Etudes préliminaires aux religions orientales dans l'Empire romain. Brill. p. 152. Retrieved 2018-04-13.
  5. ^ أ ب Watson 1999, p. 1.
  6. ^ John Malalas, Book 12, chapter 30.
  7. ^ Croke, Brian (1990). Studies in John Malalas. BRILL. p. 76. ISBN 978-90-04-34462-4.
  8. ^ Anderson, Zachary (2015). The Fall of Rome and the Rise of Constantinople. Cavendish Square. p. 28. ISBN 978-1-5026-0574-0.
  9. ^ Morris, Kenneth (2009). The Crest-Wave of Evolution A Course of Lectures in History, Given in the Raja-Yoga College, 1918-1919. Floating Press. p. 764. ISBN 978-1-77541-083-6.
  10. ^ Fine, John V. A (2010). When Ethnicity Did Not Matter in the Balkans A Study of Identity in Pre-Nationalist Croatia, Dalmatia, and Slavonia in the Medieval and Early-Modern Periods. University of Michigan Press. p. 258. ISBN 978-0-472-02560-2.
  11. ^ Wijnendaele, Jeroen W. P.; Hanaghan, Michael P. (2021). "Constantius heros (ILCV 66) – An elegiac testimony on the decline of the Late Roman West". Chiron. 51: 273. doi:10.1515/9783110742770-008. ISBN 9783110742770. S2CID 244540886.
  12. ^ Syvänne 2020, pp. 29-30.
  13. ^ Saunders 1992, p. 107.
  14. ^ Saunders 1992, p. 109.
  15. ^ For instance, vita Divi Aureliani paras 5.5–6, 6.3–5, and 7.1–2. If he ever was a tribune of a legion as suggested in 7.1–2 it could not have been with Legio VII Gallicana as that unit never existed.
  16. ^ Saunders 1992, pp. 129–130.
  17. ^ أ ب ت White (2015), p. [1] ???
  18. ^ Syvänne, Ilkka (2019-05-30). The Reign of Emperor Gallienus: The Apogee of Roman Cavalry (in الإنجليزية). Pen and Sword. ISBN 978-1-5267-4522-4.
  19. ^ أ ب Hengst, Daniël den (2010). Emperors and Historiography: Collected Essays on the Literature of the Roman Empire by Daniël Den Hengst (in الإنجليزية). BRILL. pp. 91, 119, 204, 206. ISBN 978-900-417-438-2.
  20. ^ Watson, Alaric (2004). Aurelian and the Third Century (in الإنجليزية). New York: Psychology Press. p. 113. ISBN 0-415-30187-4.
  21. ^ "ToposText". topostext.org. Retrieved 2020-06-07.
  22. ^ Watson, Alaric (2004). Aurelian and the Third Century (in الإنجليزية). New York, NY: Psychology Press. p. 172. ISBN 0-415-30187-4.
  23. ^ "LacusCurtius: Templum Solis (Platner & Ashby, 1929)". penelope.uchicago.edu. Retrieved 2020-06-23.
  24. ^ Aurelius Victor, xxxiii,21. Other sources do not cite Aurelian among those who conspired against Gallienus, though different sources have claimed that he was the one who called Gallienus out of his tent under a proposed "conspiracy" at the point Gallienus was stabbed.
  25. ^ Watson 1999, p. 41.
  26. ^ J. Bray (1997), pp. 279–288, Pat Southern 2001, p. 109. Also see Alaric Watson 1999, p. 215, David S. Potter 2004, p. 266, Herwig Wolfram, History of the Goths (transl. by Thomas J. Dunlap), University of California Press, 1988. ISBN 0-520-06983-8, p. 54
  27. ^ Watson 1999.
  28. ^ Körner, Christian (23 December 2008). "Aurelian (A.D. 270–275)". De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and Their Families. Archived from the original on 2 December 2010. Retrieved 6 January 2011.
  29. ^ أ ب ت Watson 1999, p. 42.
  30. ^ أ ب Watson 1999, p. 43.
  31. ^ أ ب Watson 1999, p. 44.
  32. ^ أ ب ت ث ج Watson 1999, p. 45.
  33. ^ Watson 1999, p. 46.
  34. ^ Peachin 1990, pp. 43–44.
  35. ^ Kienast 2017, p. 222.
  36. ^ Stein, pp. 46, 50.
  37. ^ Zonaras.
  38. ^ أ ب ت Korner.
  39. ^ Small Bronze Sculpture from the Ancient World: Papers Delivered at a Symposium Organized by the Departments of Antiquities and Antiquities Conservation and Held at the J. Paul Getty Museum, March 16–19, 1989. Getty Publications. 1990. p. 110. ISBN 978-0-89236-176-2.
  40. ^ Bust of Probus and Claudius II: MR 351, MR 350, MR 352, MR 353.
  41. ^ Portraitkopf des Aurelianus, Museo Civico Romano, Brescia. Arachne. Arachne. German Archaeological Institute. University of Cologne.
  42. ^ Heijnen, S. J. M. (2022). Portraying Change. The Representation of Roman Emperors in Freestanding Sculpture (ca. 50 BC - ca. 400 AD). Gildeprint Enschede. p. 79. ISBN 978-94-6419-400-5.
  43. ^ White 2015, p. 139.
  44. ^ Portraitkopf des Marcus Aurelius Probus, Museo della città, Brescia. Arachne. German Archaeological Institute. University of Cologne.
  45. ^ Schneider, Rolf Michael (2012), "Porträtkopf: Kaiser oder Zeitgesicht?", in Puhle, Matthias, Otto der Große und das Römische Reich. Kaisertum von der Antike zum Mittelalter. Ausstellungskatalog Landesausstellung Sachsen-Anhalt aus Anlass des 1100. Geburtstages Ottos des Großen., Regensburg: Heidelberg University Library, pp. 144-145, doi:10.11588/propylaeumdok.00005378 
  46. ^ Wegner, Max (1973). "Romische bildnisse aus bronze im Museo Romano Zu Brescia". In ATENEO DI SCIENZE LETTERE E ARTI BRESCIA. Atti del Convegno internazionale per il XIX centenario della dedicazione del "CAPITOLIUM" e per il 150° anniversario della sua scoperta. Vol. 2. 163–169.
  47. ^ Magh, David. Historia Augusta. Vol. II. Loeb Classical Library.
  48. ^ "Solving the Mystery of an Ancient Roman Plague". The Atlantic. November 2017.
  49. ^ The war against the Palmyrene Empire is described in Zosimus, 1,50,1-1,61,1, and Historia Augusta, Aurelianus, 22-31.
  50. ^ أ ب  Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Aurelian" . دائرة المعارف البريطانية. Vol. 2 (eleventh ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 923–924. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  51. ^ Clauss, Manfred (2001). Die römischen Kaiser : 55 historische Portraits von Caesar bis Iustinian (in الألمانية). München: Beck. p. 250. ISBN 978-3-406-47288-6.
  52. ^ Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 6.
  53. ^ Eusebius, Historia Ecclesiastica 7.30.20
  54. ^ Jerome, Chronicon, 263rd Olympiad
  55. ^ Orosius, Historiarum, Book 7, Chapter 23
  56. ^ Watson 1999, pp. 52–53.
  57. ^ On the different theories regarding the XXI see Schwenter, Johannes (2023). "Aurelians Münzreform - das Kürzel XXI" [Aurelian's coin reform - the abbreviation XXI]. Jahrbuch für Numismatik und Geldgeschichte 73, pp. 195-204.
  58. ^ Watson 1999, p. 130.
  59. ^ Sylvianne Estiot, The Lava Treasure of Roman Gold. Also in Trésors monétaires, volume XXIV, BNF, 2011 ISBN 9782717724929
  60. ^ Watson, Alaric (2004), Aurelian and the Third Century, London: Routledge, pp, 139-140
  61. ^ Pat Southern, The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine (London: Routledge, 2015), ISBN 978-0-415-73807-1, p. 181.
  62. ^ For an exact etymology, see Debal, Jacques (1996). Cenabum, Aurelianis, Orléans. Lyon: Presses universitaires de Lyon. ISBN 978-2-7297-0554-1.


المصادر

المصادر الرئيسية

المصادر الثانوية

قراءات اضافية

  • White, John F (2005). Restorer of the World: The Roman Emperor Aurelian. Tempus Publishing. ISBN 1-86227-250-6.

وصلات خارجية

مشاع المعرفة فيه ميديا متعلقة بموضوع [[commons: Category:أورليان

| أورليان

]].
ألقاب ملكية
سبقه
Quintillus 		Roman emperor
270–275 		تبعه
Tacitus
مناصب سياسية
سبقه
Flavius Antiochianus
Virius Orfitus 		Roman consul
271
مع Pomponius Bassus 		تبعه
T. Flavius Postumius Quietus
Junius Veldumnianus
سبقه
M. Claudius Tacitus
Julius Placidianus 		Roman consul
274–275
مع Capitolinus (274)
Marcellinus (275) 		تبعه
M. Claudius Tacitus II
Aemilianus II
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