موكشا
| ترجمات Moksha | |
|---|---|
| الإنگليزية | Emancipation, liberation, release |
| السنسكريتية | मोक्ष (IAST: mokṣa) |
| الآسامية | মোক্ষ (mokkho) |
| بالي | ᬫᭀᬓ᭄ᬲ (moksa) |
| بنغالي | মোক্ষ (mokkho) |
| گجراتي | મોક્ષ (mōkṣa) |
| هندي | मोक्ष (mokṣa) |
| جاوي | ꦩꦺꦴꦏ꧀ꦱ (moksa) |
| كنـَّدا | ಮೋಕ್ಷ (mōkṣa) |
| مليالم | മോക്ഷം (mōkṣaṁ) |
| مراثي | मोक्ष (mokṣa) |
| نـِپالي | मोक्ष (mokṣa) |
| أوديا | ମୋକ୍ଷ (mokṣa) |
| پنجابي | ਮੋਖ / موکھ (mokh) |
| تاميل | வீடுபேறு (vīdupēru) |
| تلوگو | మోక్షము (mōkṣaṁu) |
| معجم المصطلحات الهندوسية | |
| ترجمات Moksha | |
|---|---|
| الصينية | 解脫 (Pinyin: jiětuō) |
| اليابانية | 解脱 (rōmaji: gedatsu) |
| الكورية | 해탈 (RR: haetal) |
| سنهالا | මෝක්ෂ (moksha) |
| تاي | โมกษะ |
| الڤيتنامية | giải thoát |
| معجم البوذية | |
| مقالات عن |
| الهندوسية |
|---|
 |
في الديانات الهندية، موكشا (بالسنسكريتية: मोक्ष mokṣa ؛ إنگليزية: Moksha) أو موكتي Mukti (بالسنسكريتية: मुक्ति)، وتعني حرفياً "إطلاق" أو تحرير (كلاهما من الجذر muc "يطلِق، تحرير' من سمسرا والمعاناة المصاحبة بسبب التعرض لدورة الموت المتكرر واعادة الميلاد (تناسخ الأرواح).
أصل الاسم
Moksha is derived from the Sanskrit root word, muc, which means to free, let go, release, liberate. According to Jain scriptures, it is a combination of two Sanskrit words, moh (attachment) and kshay (its destruction).[1]
الهندوسية
| مقالات عن |
| الهندوسية |
|---|
|
هناك ثلاث وجهات نظر رئيسة للموكشا من فلسفة ڤدانتا التقليدية.
سبل تحقيق الموكشا
في الهندوسية، أتما-جنانا (الوعي بالذات) هو المفتاح للحصول على الموكشا. والهندوسي هو الشخص الذي يمارس واحد أو أكثر من صيغ اليوگا --- بكتي، كارما، جنانا، راجا، عارفاً أن الإله غير محدود ويوجد في صيغ مختلفة، شخصية وغير شخصية.
وعلى المرء أن يحقق الموكشا بنفسه تحت رعاية معلم (گورو). ويقوم الگورو أو سيدّا بالإلهام، إلا أنه لا يتدخل.
مكونات الموكشا
البوذية
مقالة مفصلة: نرڤانا
في البوذية مفهوم التحرر هو نرڤانا. ويشار إليها على أنها "أعلى درجات السعادة" وهي الهدف من الطريق البوذي.
السيخية
الفهوم السيخي موكتي mukti (موكشا) هو في الأساس مفهوم جيڤان موكتي، الذي يمكن الوصول إليها في حياة الشخص الحالية. وبالاضافة لذلك، فإن السيخية ترفض فكرة الإمعان في الزهد كسبيل لجيفان موكتا. قارن ذلك، على سبيل المثال، مع وجهة النظر الجاينية التي تبعاً لها فإن "الأشخاص المحرَرين … يجب أن يعيشوا عيشة المتسول، وإلا فلن يستطيعوا أن يكونوا أحراراً من الكارما" (G. N. Joshi: Atman and Mokhsa. Gujarat University, Ahmedabad, 1965, p. 260).
الجاينية
- مقالة مفصلة: موكسا (جاينية)
في الجاينية, موكسا و نرڤانا (جاينية) هما نفس الشيء.[2][3] فعندما تحقق الروح (أتمان) الموكسا، فإنها تنعتق من دورة الميلاد والموت، وتحقق ذاتها النقية. وعندئذ تصبح سيدّا (وتعني حرفياً الشخص الذ يحقق أقصى أهدافه).
في الجاينية، الوصول إلى الموكسا يتطلب التخلص من كل الكارمات، الجيدة والسيئة؛ لأنه لو بقت كارما، فإنه تحمل ثماراً تغري الآخرين وتثير مطامعهم.
التاريخ
The proto-concept that first appears in the ancient Sanskrit verses and early Upanishads is mucyate, which means "freed" or "released". In the middle and later Upanishads, such as the Svetasvatara and Maitri, the word moksha appears and begins becoming an important concept.[4][5]
The Katha Upanishad,[6] a middle Upanishadic-era script dated to the second half of the first millennium BCE, is among the earliest expositions about saṃsāra and moksha. In Book I, Section III, the legend of boy Nachiketa queries Yama, the lord of death to explain what causes saṃsāra and what leads to liberation.[7] Naciketa inquires: what causes sorrow? Yama explains that suffering and saṃsāra results from a life that is lived absent-mindedly, with impurity, with neither the use of intelligence nor self-examination, where neither mind nor senses are guided by one's atma (soul, self).[8][9] Liberation comes from a life lived with inner purity, alert mind, led by buddhi (reason, intelligence), realization of the Supreme Self (purusha) who dwells in all beings. Kathaka Upanishad asserts knowledge liberates, knowledge is freedom.[10][11] Kathaka Upanishad also explains the role of yoga in personal liberation, moksha.
The Svetasvatara Upanishad, another middle-era Upanishad written after Kathaka Upanishad, begins with questions such as why is man born? what is the primal cause behind the universe? what causes joy and sorrow in life?[12] It then examines the various theories, that were then existing, about saṃsāra and release from bondage. Svetasvatara claims[13] that bondage results from ignorance, illusion or delusion; deliverance comes from knowledge. The Supreme Being dwells in every being, he is the primal cause, he is the eternal law, he is the essence of everything, he is nature, he is not a separate entity. Liberation comes to those who know Supreme Being is present as the Universal Spirit and Principle, just as they know butter is present in milk. Such realization, claims Svetasvatara, come from self-knowledge and self-discipline; and this knowledge and realization is liberation from transmigration, the final goal of the Upanishad.[14]
Starting with the middle Upanishad era, moksha – or equivalent terms such as mukti and kaivalya – is a major theme in many Upanishads. For example, Sarasvati Rahasya Upanishad, one of several Upanishads of the bhakti school of Hinduism, starts out with prayers to Goddess Sarasvati. She is the Hindu goddess of knowledge, learning and creative arts;[15] her name is a compound word of sara[16] and sva,[17] meaning "essence of self". After the prayer verses, the Upanishad inquires about the secret to freedom and liberation (mukti). Sarasvati's reply in the Upanishad is:
It was through me the Creator himself gained liberating knowledge,
I am being, consciousness, bliss, eternal freedom: unsullied, unlimited, unending.
My perfect consciousness shines your world, like a beautiful face in a soiled mirror,
Seeing that reflection I wish myself you, an individual soul, as if I could be finite!
A finite soul, an infinite Goddess – these are false concepts,
in the minds of those unacquainted with truth,
No space, my loving devotee, exists between your self and my self,
Know this and you are free. This is the secret wisdom.— Sarasvati Rahasya Upanishad، Translated by Linda Johnsen[18]
تطور المفهوم
It is unclear when the core ideas of samsara and moksha developed in ancient India. Patrick Olivelle suggests these ideas likely originated with new religious movements in the first millennium BCE.[19] The concepts of mukti and moksha, suggests J. A. B. van Buitenen,[20] seem traceable to yogis in Hinduism, with long hair, who chose to live on the fringes of society, given to self-induced states of intoxication and ecstasy, possibly accepted as medicine-men and "sadhus" by ancient Indian society.[4] Moksha to these early concept-developers, was the abandonment of the established order, not in favor of anarchy, but in favor of self-realization, to achieve release from this world.[21]
The concept of moksha, according to Daniel Ingalls,[4] represented one of the many expansions in Hindu Vedic ideas of life and the afterlife. In the Vedas, there were three stages of life: studentship, householdship and retirement. During the Upanishadic era, Hinduism expanded this to include a fourth stage of life: complete abandonment. In Vedic literature, there are three modes of experience: waking, dream and deep sleep. The Upanishadic era expanded these modes to include turiyam – the stage beyond deep sleep. The Vedas suggest three goals of man: kama, artha and dharma. To these, the Upanishadic era added moksha.[4]
The acceptance of the concept of moksha in some schools of Hindu philosophy was slow. These refused to recognize moksha for centuries, considering it irrelevant.[4] The Mimamsa school, for example, denied the goal and relevance of moksha well into the 8th century AD, until the arrival of a Mimamsa scholar named Kumarila.[22] Instead of moksha, the Mimamsa school of Hinduism considered the concept of heaven as sufficient to answer the question: what lay beyond this world after death. Other schools of Hinduism, over time, accepted the moksha concept and refined it over time.[4]
In its historical development, the concept of moksha appears in three forms: Vedic, yogic and bhakti.
In the Vedic period, moksha was ritualistic.[20] Mokṣa was claimed to result from properly completed rituals such as those before Agni – the fire deity. The significance of these rituals was to reproduce and recite the cosmic-creation event described in the Vedas; the description of knowledge on different levels – adhilokam, adhibhutam, adhiyajnam, adhyatmam – helped the individual transcend to moksa. Knowledge was the means, the ritual its application.
By the middle to late Upanishadic period, the emphasis shifted to knowledge, and ritual activities were considered irrelevant to the attainment of moksha.[24] Yogic moksha[20][25] replaced Vedic rituals with personal development and meditation, with hierarchical creation of the ultimate knowledge in self as the path to moksha. Yogic moksha principles were accepted in many other schools of Hinduism, albeit with differences. For example, Adi Shankara in his book on moksha suggests:
अर्थस्य निश्चयो दृष्टो विचारेण हितोक्तितः |
न स्नानेन न दानेन प्राणायमशतेन वा || १३ ||
By reflection, reasoning and instructions of teachers, the truth is known,
Not by ablutions, not by making donations, nor by performing hundreds of breath control exercises. || Verse 13 ||— Vivekachudamani، 8th Century AD[26]
Bhakti moksha created the third historical path, where neither rituals nor meditative self-development were the way, rather it was inspired by constant love and contemplation of God, which over time results in a perfect union with God.[20] Some Bhakti schools evolved their ideas where God became the means and the end, transcending moksha; the fruit of bhakti is bhakti itself.[27] In the history of Indian religious traditions, additional ideas and paths to moksha beyond these three, appeared over time.[28]
Interpretations in relation to Dharma
Nagarjuna's challenge
Dharma and moksha, suggested Nagarjuna in the 2nd century, cannot be goals on the same journey.[29] Reason being, dharma requires worldly thought, but moksha is unworldly bliss. Thus, "How can the worldly thought-process lead to unworldly understanding?", asked Nagarjuna.[29] Karl Potter explains the answer to this challenge as one of context and framework, the emergence of broader general principles of understanding from thought processes that are limited in one framework.[30]
Adi Shankara's challenge
Adi Shankara in the 8th century AD, like Nagarjuna earlier, examined the difference between the world one lives in and moksha, a state of freedom and release one hopes for.[31] Unlike Nagarjuna, Shankara considers the characteristics between the two. The world one lives in requires action as well as thought; our world, he suggests, is impossible without vyavahara (action and plurality). The world is interconnected, one object works on another, input is transformed into output, change is continuous and everywhere. Moksha, suggests Shankara,[32] is a final perfect, blissful state where there can be no change, where there can be no plurality of states. It has to be a state of thought and consciousness that excludes action.[31] He questioned: "How can action-oriented techniques by which we attain the first three goals of man (kama, artha and dharma) be useful to attain the last goal, namely moksha?"
Scholars[33] suggest Shankara's challenge to the concept of moksha parallels those of Plotinus against the Gnostics, with one important difference:[31] Plotinus accused the Gnostics of exchanging an anthropocentric set of virtues with a theocentric set in pursuit of salvation; Shankara challenged that the concept of moksha implied an exchange of anthropocentric set of virtues (dharma) with a blissful state that has no need for values. Shankara goes on to suggest that anthropocentric virtues suffice.
Vaishnavas (followers of Vaishnavism, a bhakti school of Hinduism) suggest that dharma and moksha cannot be two different or sequential goals or states of life.[34] Instead, they suggest God should be kept in mind constantly to simultaneously achieve dharma and moksha, so constantly that one comes to feel one cannot live without God's loving presence. This school emphasized love and adoration of God as the path to "moksha" (salvation and release), rather than works and knowledge. Their focus became divine virtues, rather than anthropocentric virtues. Daniel Ingalls[34] regards Vaishnavas' position on moksha as similar to the Christian position on salvation, and Vaishnavism as the school whose views on dharma, karma and moksha dominated the initial impressions and colonial-era literature on Hinduism, through the works of Thibaut, Max Müller and others.
المرادفات
The words moksha, nirvana (nibbana) and kaivalya are sometimes used synonymously,[35] because they all refer to the state that liberates a person from all causes of sorrow and suffering.[36][37] However, each concept differs in the details.[38] Nirvana, a concept common in Buddhism, rests on the premise that all experienced phenomena are not self; while moksha, in Hinduism, begins with the acceptance of a self.[39][40] Nirvana starts with the premise that there is no Self, moksha on the other hand, starts with the premise that everything is the Self; there is no consciousness in the state of nirvana, but everything is One unified consciousness in the state of moksha.[39]
Kaivalya, a concept akin to moksha, rather than nirvana, is found in some schools of Hinduism such as the Yoga school. Kaivalya is the realization of aloofness with liberating knowledge of one's self and disentanglement from the muddled mind and cognitive apparatus. For example, Patanjali's Yoga Sutra suggests:
After the dissolution of avidya (ignorance),
comes removal of communion with material world,
this is the path to Kaivalyam.— Yoga Sutra (Sadhana Pada)، 2:24–25[41]
Nirvana and moksha, in all traditions, represent resting in one's true essence, named Purusha or Atman, or pointed at as Nirvana, but described in a very different way. Loy has argued that there is not a difference in experience between nirvana in Buddhism and moksha in Advaita Vedanta.[37][39] Some scholars, states Jayatilleke, assert that the Nirvana of Buddhism is same as the Brahman in Hinduism, a view other scholars and he disagree with.[42] Buddhism rejects the idea of Brahman, and the metaphysical ideas about soul (atman) are also rejected by Buddhism, while those ideas are essential to moksha in Hinduism.[43] In Buddhism, nirvana is 'blowing out' or 'extinction'.[44] In Hinduism, moksha is 'identity or oneness with Brahman'.[40] Realization of anatta (anatman) is essential to Buddhist nirvana.[45][46][47] Realization of atman (atta) is essential to Hindu moksha.[46][48][49]
الهامش
- ^ "Moksha | Derived from the Sanskrit word muc ("to free")". Encyclopedia Britannica (in الإنجليزية). Retrieved 13 مايو 2021.
- ^ Jaini, Padmanabh (2000). Collected Papers on Jaina Studies. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publ. ISBN 81-208-1691-9.: "Moksa and Nirvana are synonymous in Jainism". p.168
- ^ Michael Carrithers, Caroline Humphrey (1991) The Assembly of listeners: Jains in society Cambridge University Press. ISBN-0521365058: "Nirvana: A synonym for liberation, release, moksa." p.297
- ^ أ ب ت ث ج ح Daniel H. H. Ingalls, "Dharma and Moksha", Philosophy East and West, Vol. 7, No. 1/2 (Apr. – Jul., 1957), pp. 41–48
- ^ see:
- Klaus Klostermaier (1985), Mokṣa and Critical Theory, Philosophy East and West, 35 (1), pp 61–71
- Roeser, R.W. (2005), An introduction to Hindu Indiaís contemplative psychological perspectives on motivation, self, and development, in M.L. Maehr & S. Karabenick (Eds.), Advances in Motivation and Achievement, Volume 14: Religion and Motivation. Elsevier, pp. 297–345
- ^ Sometimes called Katha Upanishad – for example, by Max Muller, Nakhilananda
- ^ Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Vol 1, ISBN 978-0842616454, pp 269–290
- ^ [a] Atman, Oxford Dictionaries, Oxford University Press (2012), Quote: "1. real self of the individual; 2. a person's soul";
[b] John Bowker (2000), The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0192800947, See entry for Atman;
[c] WJ Johnson (2009), A Dictionary of Hinduism, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0198610250, See entry for Atman (self). - ^ [a] David Lorenzen (2004), The Hindu World (Editors: Sushil Mittal and Gene Thursby), Routledge, ISBN 0-415215277, pages 208–209, Quote: "Advaita and nirguni movements, on the other hand, stress an interior mysticism in which the devotee seeks to discover the identity of individual soul (atman) with the universal ground of being (brahman) or to find god within himself".;
[b] Richard King (1995), Early Advaita Vedanta and Buddhism, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791425138, page 64, Quote: "Atman as the innermost essence or soul of man, and Brahman as the innermost essence and support of the universe. (...) Thus we can see in the Upanishads, a tendency towards a convergence of microcosm and macrocosm, culminating in the equating of atman with Brahman".
[c] Chad Meister (2010), The Oxford Handbook of Religious Diversity, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0195340136, page 63; Quote: "Even though Buddhism explicitly rejected the Hindu ideas of Atman (soul) and Brahman, Hinduism treats Sakyamuni Buddha as one of the ten avatars of Vishnu." - ^ Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Vol 1, ISBN 978-0842616454, pp 283–289
- ^ S. Nikhilananda, The Principal Upanishads, Dover Publications, ISBN 978-0486427171, pp 63–84
- ^ Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Vol 1, ISBN 978-0842616454, pp 301–326
- ^ Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Vol 1, ISBN 978-0842616454, pp 316, 319–325
- ^ Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Vol 1, ISBN 978-0842616454, pp 305–306, 322–325
- ^ أ ب see:
- John Bowker (1998), Picturing God, Series Editor: Jean Holm, Bloomsbury Academic, ISBN 978-1855671010, pp 99–101;
- Richard Leviton (2011), Hierophantic Landscapes, ISBN 978-1462054145, pp 543
- ^ सार Sanskrit English Dictionary, Germany
- ^ स्व Sanskrit English Dictionary, Germany
- ^ Linda Johnsen (2002), The Living Goddess: Reclaiming the Tradition of the Mother of the Universe, ISBN 978-0936663289, pp 51–52; for Sanskrit original see: सरस्वतीरहस्योपनिषत् sarasvatIrahasya
- ^ خطأ استشهاد: وسم
<ref>غير صحيح؛ لا نص تم توفيره للمراجع المسماةBrittanica - ^ أ ب ت ث خطأ استشهاد: وسم
<ref>غير صحيح؛ لا نص تم توفيره للمراجع المسماةjabvb - ^ J.A.B. van Buitenen, in Roy Perrett (Editor) – Theory of Value, Volume 5, ISBN 0-8153-3612-8, Taylor & Francis, pp 25–32
- ^ see:
- M. Hiriyanna (1952), The Quest After Perfection, Kavyalaya Publishers, pp 23–33
- John Taber, "The significance of Kumarila's Philosophy", in Roy Perrett (Ed) – Theory of Value, Vol 5, ISBN 978-0815336129 pp. 113–161
- Okita, K. (2008), "Mīmāṃsā and Vedānta: Interaction and Continuity", The Journal of Hindu Studies, 1(1–2), pp 155–156
- ^ see:
- Mircea Eliade (1958, Reprinted: 2009), Yoga: Immortality and Freedom, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0691142036, pp 33–34;
- Sarah Strauss (2005), Positioning Yoga, Berg/Oxford International, ISBN 1-85973-739-0, pp 15
- ^ Angelika Malinar (2011), in Jessica Frazier (ed.), The Bloomsbury companion to Hindu studies, ISBN 978-1-4725-1151-5, Chapter 4
- ^ Knut Jacobson, in Jessica Frazier (Editor), Continuum companion to Hindu studies, ISBN 978-0-8264-9966-0, pp 74–82
- ^ See:
- John Richards (Translator), Vivekachudamani, ISBN 978-0979726743 (2011 Edition);
- Madhavananda's translation of Vivekachudamani published in 1921, Himalayan Series 43;
- ^ Klaus Klostermaier (1986), "Contemporary conceptions among North Indian Vaishnavas", in Ronald Neufeldt (Editor) – Karma and Rebirth Post Classical Developments, ISBN 978-0873959902, State University of New York Press, Chapter 5
- ^ D. Datta (1888), "Moksha, or the Vedántic Release", Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, New Series, Vol. 20, No. 4 (Oct., 1888), pp. 513–539
- ^ أ ب Daniel H. H. Ingalls, Dharma and Moksha, Philosophy East and West, Vol. 7, No. 1/2 (Apr. – Jul., 1957), pp. 46
- ^ Karl Potter, Dharma and Mokṣa from a Conversational Point of View, Philosophy East and West, Vol. 8, No. 1/2 (Apr. – Jul., 1958), pp. 49–63
- ^ أ ب ت Daniel H. H. Ingalls, Dharma and Moksha, Philosophy East and West, Vol. 7, No. 1/2 (Apr. – Jul., 1957), pp. 47
- ^ خطأ استشهاد: وسم
<ref>غير صحيح؛ لا نص تم توفيره للمراجع المسماةklausklost - ^ see:
- Daniel H. H. Ingalls, Dharma and Moksha, Philosophy East and West, Vol. 7, No. 1/2 (Apr. – Jul., 1957), pp 41–48
- R Sinari (1982), The concept of human estrangement in plotinism and Shankara Vedanta, in "Neoplatonism and Indian thought", Ed: R.B. Harris, Albany, NY, pp 243–255
- R.K. Tripathi (1982), Advaita Vedanta and Neoplatonism, in "Neoplatonism and Indian thought", Ed: R.B. Harris, Albany, NY, pp 237; also see pp 294–297 by Albert Wolters
- ^ أ ب Daniel H. H. Ingalls, "Dharma and Moksha", Philosophy East and West, Vol. 7, No. 1/2 (Apr. – Jul., 1957), pp. 48
- ^ For example, the Adhyatma Upanishad uses all three words nirvana, kaivalya and moksha (Verses 12, 16, 69, 70); K.N. Aiyar (Transl. 1914), Thirty Minor Upanishads, University of Toronto Robart Library Archives, Canada, pp 55–60
- ^ A. Sharma, The realization of Kaivalya in the Poetry of Les A Murray: An Indian Perspective, Explorations in Australian Literature, ISBN 978-8176257091, Chapter 18, pp 187
- ^ أ ب خطأ استشهاد: وسم
<ref>غير صحيح؛ لا نص تم توفيره للمراجع المسماةpjaini - ^ خطأ استشهاد: وسم
<ref>غير صحيح؛ لا نص تم توفيره للمراجع المسماةdltc - ^ أ ب ت David Loy (1982), Enlightenment in Buddhism and Advaita Vedanta: Are Nirvana and Moksha the Same?, International Philosophical Quarterly, 23(1), pp 65–74
- ^ أ ب [a] Brian Morris (2006). Religion and Anthropology: A Critical Introduction. Cambridge University Press. p. 51. ISBN 978-0-521-85241-8.
[b] Gadjin M. Nagao (يناير 1991). Madhyamika and Yogacara: A Study of Mahayana Philosophies. State University of New York Press. pp. 177–180. ISBN 978-1-4384-1406-5.
[c] Brian Morris (2015). Anthropology, Ecology, and Anarchism: A Brian Morris Reader. PM Press. p. 74. ISBN 978-1-60486-093-1. - ^ For Sanskrit version: Sadasivendra Sarasvati (1912), Yoga Sutra; For English version: Charles Johnston (1912), yogasutrasofpata00pata Yoga Sutra of Patanjali; For secondary peer reviewed source, see: Jeffrey Gold, Plato in the Light of Yoga, Philosophy East and West, Vol. 46, No. 1 (Jan., 1996), pp. 17–32; A. Sharma, The Realization of Kaivalya, in Explorations in Australian Literature, ISBN 978-8176257091, Chapter 18
- ^ K.N. Jayatilleke (2009). Facets of Buddhist Thought: Collected Essays. Buddhist Publication Society. p. 96. ISBN 978-955-24-0335-4.
- ^ K.N. Jayatilleke (2009). Facets of Buddhist Thought: Collected Essays. Buddhist Publication Society. pp. 96–97. ISBN 978-955-24-0335-4.
- ^ K.N. Jayatilleke (2009). Facets of Buddhist Thought: Collected Essays. Buddhist Publication Society. p. 90. ISBN 978-955-24-0335-4.
- ^ Martin Southwold (1983). Buddhism in Life: The Anthropological Study of Religion and the Sinhalese Practice of Buddhism. Manchester University Press. pp. 209–210. ISBN 978-0-7190-0971-6.
- ^ أ ب Sue Hamilton (2000). Early Buddhism: A New Approach : the I of the Beholder. Routledge. pp. 19–20. ISBN 978-0-7007-1280-9.
- ^ Peter Harvey (2015). Steven M. Emmanuel (ed.). A Companion to Buddhist Philosophy. John Wiley & Sons. p. 36. ISBN 978-1-119-14466-3.
- ^ Constance Jones; James D. Ryan (2006). Encyclopedia of Hinduism. Infobase. pp. 392, 292. ISBN 978-0-8160-7564-5.
- ^ Yong Zhao; Jing Lei; Guofang Li; et al. (2010). Handbook of Asian Education: A Cultural Perspective. Routledge. p. 466. ISBN 978-1-136-72129-8.
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