اللغة السنسكريتية
السنسكريتية (संस्कृतम् saṃskṛtam [sə̃skɹ̩t̪əm], originally संस्कृता वाक् saṃskṛtā vāk, "refined speech") هي لغة قديمة في الهند وهي لغة طقوسية للهندوسية، والبوذية، واليانية. لها موقع في الهند وجنوب شرق آسيا مشابه للغة اللاتينية واليونانية في أوروبا في القرون الوسطى، ولها جزء مركزي في التقليد الهندوسي. السنسكريتية هي إحدى الاثنتين وعشرين لغة رسمية للهند. تدرس في الهند كلغة ثانية. كما ان بعض البراهمنيين -وهم الوعاظ من الطبقة العالية- يعتبرونها لغتهم الأم.
| Sanskrit | |
|---|---|
| संस्कृतम् saṃskṛtam | |
| النطق | [sə̃skɹ̩t̪əm] |
| المنطقة | Greater India |
الناطقون الأصليون | 14,000[1] (2001) |
الهندو-اوروپية
| |
| No native script.[2] Written in Devanāgarī, various Brāhmī-based alphabets, and Latin script | |
| الوضع الرسمي | |
لغة رسمية في |  الهند, Uttarakhandone of the 22 scheduled languages of India |
| أكواد اللغات | |
| ISO 639-2 | san |
| ISO 639-2 | san |
| ISO 639-3 | san |
اللغة السنسكريتية Sanskrit هي إحدى أقدم اللغات التي أنتجت تراثاً دينياً وأدبياً وعلمياً مدوناً، وكلمة سنسكريت المشتقة من Samskrta تعني ما قُعِّد وصُقِل. تنتمي السنسكريتية إلى المجموعة الهندية ـ الآرية Indo-Aryan المتفرعة عن المجموعة الهندية ـ الإيرانية Indo-Iranian المنتمية إلى الأسرة اللغوية الهندية ـ الأوربية Indo-European، وقد ظهرت أصلاً في المنطقة الشمالية الغربية من شبه القارة الهندية ثم انتشرت جنوباً وشرقاً، ووصلت إلى ذروتها في الألف الأولى بعد الميلاد، إذ صارت لغة الثقافة والشعائر الدينية في معظم جنوبي وجنوب شرقي القارة الآسيوية، كونها لغة الديانة الهندوسية [ر].
تمتلك اللغة السنسكريتية، كسائر اللغات الهندية الأوربية القديمة، صيغة المثنى إلى جانب المفرد والجمع، وكذلك صيغة المحايد إلى جانب المذكر والمؤنث. كما تمتلك ثماني حالات إعرابية هي: الرفع، النصب، المفعول به الثاني، المفعول فيه، المضاف إليه، الظرفية، المنادى، الأدوات المساعدة. أما حروف الكتابة فيفوق عددها المئة، وهي بالغة التعقيد بحيث تصعب ترجمتها نطقاً بحروف لغات أخرى، بسبب تعدد أشكال لفظ الصوامت والصوائت والإدغام بين قصير ومتوسط وطويل. وتسمى هذه الأبجدية «ديفاناغاري» Devanagari، أي كتابة مدينة الآلهة.
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التاريخ
Vedic Sanskrit
الصوائت
| Letter | प् | Pronunciation | Pronunciation with /p/ | IAST equiv. | English equivalent (GA unless stated otherwise) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| अ | प | /ɐ/ or /ə/ | /pɐ/ or /pə/ | a | short near-open central vowel or schwa: u in bunny or a in about |
| आ | पा | /ɑː/ | /pɑː/ | ā | long open back unrounded vowel: a in father (RP) |
| इ | पि | /i/ | /pi/ | i | short close front unrounded vowel: e in england |
| ई | पी | /iː/ | /piː/ | ī | long close front unrounded vowel: ee in feet |
| उ | पु | /u/ | /pu/ | u | short close back rounded vowel: oo in foot |
| ऊ | पू | /uː/ | /puː/ | ū | long close back rounded vowel: oo in cool |
| ऋ | पृ | /rɨ/ | /prɨ/ | ṛ | alveolar trill followed by short close central unrounded vowel: (no English equivalent) |
| ॠ | पॄ | /rɨː/ | /prɨː/ | ṝ | alveolar trill followed by long close central unrounded vowel (no English equivalent) |
| ऌ | पॢ | /ɭ/ | /pɭ/ | ḷ | dental lateral approximant followed by short close central unrounded vowel (no English equivalent) |
| ॡ | पॣ | /ɭː/ | /pɭː/ | ḹ | dental lateral approximant followed by long close central unrounded vowel (no English equivalent) |
| ए | पे | /eː/ | /peː/ | e | long close-mid front unrounded vowel: a in bane (some speakers) |
| ऐ | पै | /əi/ | /pəi/ | ai | a long diphthong: i in ice, i in kite (Canadian and Scottish English) |
| ओ | पो | /oː/ | /poː/ | o | long close-mid back rounded vowel: o in bone (some speakers) |
| औ | पौ | /əu/ | /pəu/ | au | a long diphthong: Similar to the ou in house (Canadian English) |
الصوامت
IAST and Devanagari notations are given, with approximate IPA values in square brackets.
| Labial Ōshtya |
Labiodental Dantōshtya |
Dental Dantya |
Retroflex Mūrdhanya |
Palatal Tālavya |
Velar Kanthya |
Glottal | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Stop Sparśa |
Unaspirated Alpaprāna |
p प [p] | b ब [b] | t त [t̪] | d द [d̪] | ṭ ट [ʈ] | ḍ ड [ɖ] | c च [c͡ç] | j ज [ɟ͡ʝ] | k क [k] | g ग [ɡ] | |||
| Aspirated Mahāprāna |
ph फ [pʰ] | bh भ [bʱ] | th थ [t̪ʰ] | dh ध [d̪ʱ] | ṭh ठ [ʈʰ] | ḍh ढ [ɖʱ] | ch छ [c͡çʰ] | jh झ [ɟ͡ʝʱ] | kh ख [kʰ] | gh घ [ɡʱ] | ||||
| Nasal Anunāsika |
m म [m] | n न [n̪] | ṇ ण [ɳ] | ñ ञ [ɲ] | ṅ ङ [ŋ] | |||||||||
| Semivowel Antastha |
v व [ʋ] | y य [j] | ||||||||||||
| Liquid Drava |
l ल [l] | r र [r] | ||||||||||||
| Fricative Ūshman |
s स [s̪] | ṣ ष [ʂ] | ś श [ɕ] | ḥ ः [h] | h ह [ɦ] | |||||||||
The table below shows the traditional listing of the Sanskrit consonants with the (nearest) equivalents in English (as pronounced in General American and Received Pronunciation) and Spanish. Each consonant shown below is deemed to be followed by the neutral vowel schwa (/ə/), and is named in the table as such.
| Unaspirated Voiceless Alpaprāna Śvāsa |
Aspirated Voiceless Mahāprāna Śvāsa |
Unaspirated Voiced Alpaprāna Nāda |
Aspirated Voiced Mahāprāna Nāda |
Nasal Anunāsika Nāda | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Velar Kanthya |
क /kə/; English: skip |
ख /kʰə/; English: cat |
ग /ɡə/; English: game |
घ /ɡʱə/; somewhat similar to English: doghouse |
ङ /ŋə/; English: ring |
| Palatal Tālavya |
च /cə/; English: exchange |
छ /cʰə/; English: church |
ज /ɟə/; ≈English: jam |
झ /ɟʱə/; somewhat similar to English: hedgehog |
ञ /ɲə/; English: bench |
| Retroflex Mūrdhanya |
ट /ʈə/; No English equivalent |
ठ /ʈʰə/; No English equivalent |
ड /ɖə/; No English equivalent |
ढ /ɖʱə/; No English equivalent |
ण /ɳə/; No English equivalent |
| Apico-Dental Dantya |
त /t̪ə/; Spanish: tomate |
थ /t̪ʰə/; Aspirated /t̪/ |
द /d̪ə/; Spanish: donde |
ध /d̪ʱə/; Aspirated /d̪/ |
न /n̪ə/; English: name |
| Labial Ōshtya |
प /pə/; English: spin |
फ /pʰə/; English: pit |
ब /bə/; English: bone |
भ /bʱə/; somewhat similar to English: clubhouse |
म /mə/; English: mine |
| Palatal Tālavya |
Retroflex Mūrdhanya |
Dental Dantya |
Labial/ Glottal Ōshtya | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Approximant Antastha |
य /jə/; English: you |
र /rə/; English: trip |
ल /l̪ə/; English: love |
व (labio-dental) /ʋə/; English: vase |
| Sibilant/ Fricative Ūshman |
श /ɕə/; English: ship |
ष /ʂə/; Retroflex form of /ʃ/ |
स /s̪ə/; English: same |
ह (glottal) /ɦə/; English behind |
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Writing system
Numerals
The numbers from one to ten:
- éka-
- dva-
- tri-
- catúr-
- páñcan-
- ṣáṣ-
- saptán-
- aṣṭá-
- návan-
- dáśan-
The numbers one through four are declined. Éka is declined like a pronominal adjective, though the dual form does not occur. Dvá appears only in the dual. Trí and catúr are declined irregularly:
| Three | Four | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Masculine | Neuter | Feminine | Masculine | Neuter | Feminine | |
| Nominative | tráyas | trī́ṇi | tisrás | catvā́ras | catvā́ri | cátasras |
| Accusative | trīn | trī́ṇi | tisrás | catúras | catvā́ri | cátasras |
| Instrumental | tribhís | tisṛ́bhis | catúrbhis | catasṛ́bhis | ||
| Dative | tribhyás | tisṛ́bhyas | catúrbhyas | catasṛ́bhyas | ||
| Ablative | tribhyás | tisṛ́bhyas | catúrbhyas | catasṛ́bhyas | ||
| Genitive | triyāṇā́m | tisṛṇā́m | caturṇā́m | catasṛṇā́m | ||
| Locative | triṣú | tisṛ́ṣu | catúrṣu | catasṛ́ṣu | ||
Computational linguistics
There have been suggestions to use Sanskrit as a metalanguage for knowledge representation in e.g. machine translation, and other areas of natural language processing because of its relatively high regular structure.[3] This is due to Classical Sanskrit being a regularized, prescriptivist form abstracted from the much more complex and richer Vedic Sanskrit. This leveling of the grammar of Classical Sanskrit began during the Brahmana phase, and had not yet completed by the time of Pāṇini, when the language had fallen out of popular use.[بحاجة لمصدر]
انظر أيضاً
Notes
Footnotes
Citations
- ^ "Comparative speaker's strength of scheduled languages − 1971, 1981, 1991 and 2001". Census of India, 2001. Office of the Registrar and Census Commissioner, India. Retrieved 31 December 2009.
- ^ Banerji, Suresh (1971). A companion to Sanskrit literature: spanning a period of over three thousand years, containing brief accounts of authors, works, characters, technical terms, geographical names, myths, legends, and twelve appendices. p. 672. ISBN 9788120800632.
- ^ First suggested by Briggs (1985)
الهامش
- Abhyankar, Kashinath V. (1986), A dictionary of Sanskrit Grammar,, Gaekwad's Oriental Series, 134, Baroda: Oriental Institute
- Briggs, Rick (1985), "Knowledge Representation in Sanskrit and Artificial Intelligence (PDF)", AI Magazine 6 (1), http://www.aaai.org/ojs/index.php/aimagazine/article/viewArticle/466
- Burrow, T. (2001), Sanskrit language, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 8120817672
- Chatterji, Suniti Kumar (1960), Indo-Aryan and Hindi, Firma K. L. Mukhopadhyay
- Edgerton, F. (1953), Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit grammar and dictionary, New Haven: Yale University Press
- van Gulik, Robert (1956), Siddham; an essay on the history of Sanskrit studies in China and Japan, Nagpur: International Academy of Indian Culture, ISBN 8177420380
- Hanneder, J. (2002), "On "The Death of Sanskrit"", Indo-Iranian Journal 45 (4): 293–310(18), doi:, http://www.springerlink.com/content/n5380t62066168r7/
- Hanneder, J. (2009), "Modernes Sanskrit: eine vergessene Literatur", in Straube, Martin, Pāsādikadānaṃ : Festschrift für Bhikkhu Pāsādika, Indica et Tibetica Verlag, pp. 205–228, http://indologica.de/drupal/?q=node/749
- Hatcher, Brian A. (2007), "Sanskrit and the morning after", Indian Economic & Social History Review 44 (3): 333–361, doi:, http://ier.sagepub.com/content/44/3/333.abstract, retrieved on 2010-09-15
- MacDonell, Arthur Anthony (1900), A History of Sanskrit Literature, Kessinger Publishing (2004), ISBN 1417906197
- Mahadevan, I (2003), Early Tamil epigraphy from the earliest times to the sixth century Common Era, Chennai/Cambridge
- Masica, Colin (1991), The Indo-Aryan Languages, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 9780521299442, http://books.google.com/?id=J3RSHWePhXwC
- Minkowski, Christopher (2004), "Nīlakaṇṭha's instruments of war: Modern, vernacular, barbarous", The Indian Economic and Social History Review 41 (4): 365–385, doi:
- Monier-Williams, Monier (1898), A Sanskrit-English Dictionary
- Oberlies, Thomas (2003), A Grammar of Epic Sanskrit, Walter de Gruyter, ISBN 3110144484
- Pollock, Sheldon (2001), "The Death of Sanskrit", Comparative Studies in Society and History 43 (2): 392–426, doi:, http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pollock/sks/papers/death_of_sanskrit.pdf
- Pollock, Sheldon I. (2006), The language of the gods in the world of men: Sanskrit, culture, and power in premodern India, University of California Press, ISBN 9780520245006
- Staal, J.F. (1963), "Sanskrit and Sanskritization", The Journal of Asian Studies (Association for Asian Studies) 22 (3): 261–275, doi:
- Tiwari, Bholanath (1955), भाषा विज्ञान (Bhasha Vijnan), ISBN 0-7007-1382-4
- Warder, A.K. (1972), Indian kāvya Literature, Literary Criticism, 1, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass
- Whitney, William Dwight (1889), Sanskrit Grammar: Including both the Classical Language and the Older Dialects, Breitkopf & Härtel, http://books.google.com/?id=VHYKAAAAIAAJ
- Zoetmulder, Petrus Josephus (1982), Old Javanese-English dictionary, The Hague: Nijhoff
- Salomon, Richard (1998), Indian epigraphy: a guide to the study of inscriptions in Sanskrit, Prakrit, and the other Indo-Aryan languages, New York: Oxford University Press, ISBN 0195099842, http://books.google.com/?id=XYrG07qQDxkC
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للاستزادة
Introductions
- Cameron, Bruce (1992), Sanskrit Pronunciation, S.l.: Theosophical Univ Press, ISBN 1-55700-021-2
- Coulson, M. (2003), Teach Yourself Sanskrit, London: Teach Yourself, ISBN 0-340-85990-3
- Goldman, Robert P. (1999), Devavāṇīpraveśikā: An Introduction to the Sanskrit Language, Berkeley: Center for South Asia Studies, University of California, ISBN 0-944613-40-3
- Kale, M. R. (Moreshwar Ramchandra) (1988) [1894], A Higher Sanskrit Grammar, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 8120801784, http://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/scans/KALEScan/disp1/index1.php?sfx=png
- Macdonell, Arthur Anthony (1997), A Sanskrit Grammar for Students, New Delhi: D.K. Printworld, ISBN 81-246-0094-5
- Maurer, Walter Harding (2000), The Sanskrit Language: An Introductory Grammar and Reader, Richmond, Surrey: Curzon Press, ISBN 0-7007-1382-4
- Seth, Sanjay (2007), Subject Lessons: The Western Education of Colonial India, Duke University Press, http://books.google.co.in/books?id=QU9glkC4ceMC
- Shastri, Vagish (2000), Conversational Sanskrit, Varanasi: Vāgyoga Chetanāpitham, ISBN 81-85570-12-4
- Monier-Williams, Monier (1846), A Practical Grammar Of The Sanskrit Language Arranged With Reference To The Classical Languages Of Europe For The Use Of English Students, W. H. Allen & co., http://books.google.com/?id=REQhAAAAMAAJ
Grammars
- Whitney, William Dwight The Roots, Verb-Forms and Primary Derivatives of the Sanskrit Language: (A Supplement to His Sanskrit Grammar)
- Wackernagel, Debrunner, Altindische Grammatik, Göttingen.
- vol. I. Phonology Jacob Wackernagel (1896)
- vol. II.1. Introduction to morphology, nominal composition, Wackernagel (1905)
- vol. II.2. nominal suffixes, J. Wackernagel and Albert Debrunner (1954)
- vol. III. nominal inflection, numerals, pronouns, Wackernagel and Debrunner (1930)
- Delbrück, B. Altindische Tempuslehre (1876)
Dictionaries
- Otto Böhtlingk, Rudolph Roth, Petersburger Wörterbuch, 7 vols., 1855–75
- Otto Böhtlingk, Sanskrit Wörterbuch in kürzerer Fassung 1883–86 (1998 reprint, Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi)
- Manfred Mayrhofer, Kurzgefasstes etymologisches Wörterbuch des Altindischen, 1956–76
- Manfred Mayrhofer, Etymologisches Wörterbuch des Altindoarischen, 3 vols., 2742 pages, 2001, ISBN 3-8253-1477-4
وصلات خارجية
قالب:Interwiki قالب:WikisourceWiki
- Sanskrit Central is where you can read Sanskrit Blogs, do discussions about Sanskrit, watch Sanskrit Videos, look at Sanskrit Dictionary and do many more things.
- Academic Courses on Sanskrit Around The World
- Samskrita Bharati, organization promoting Sanskrit
- Sanskrit Alphabet in Devanagari, Gujarati, Bengali, and Thai scripts with an extensive list of Devanagari, Gujarati, and Bengali conjuncts
- Free Sanskrit Books, Sanskrit PDF books collection for download
Software
- Romanized Nepali Unicode Keyboard developed by OOPSLite Technologies
- Sanskrit transliteration software with font conversion to Latin and other Indian Languages
Sanskrit documents
- Sanskrit Documents — Documents in ITX format of Upanishads, Stotras etc. and a metasite with links to translations, dictionaries, tutorials, tools and other Sanskrit resources.
- Digital Sanskrit Buddhist Canon
- Gretil: Göttingen Register of Electronic Texts in Indian Languages — a cumulative register of the numerous download sites for electronic texts in Indian languages.
- Gaudiya Grantha Mandira — A Sanskrit Text Repository. This site also provides encoding converter.
- Sanskrit texts at Sacred Text Archive
- Digital Library of India at Ernet.in and IIIT.in — scanned/OCRed copies of public-domain books
Primers
- A Practical Sanskrit Introductory by Charles Wikner
- Sanskrit Self Study by Chitrapur Math
- An Analytical Cross Referenced Sanskrit Grammar By Lennart Warnemyr