المعرفة

نيو أورلينز

(تم التحويل من نيو اورلينز)
"The Big Easy", "NOLA", and "City of New Orleans" تحوّل إلى هنا. For other uses, see The Big Easy (توضيح).

نيو اورلينز (إنگليزية: New Orleans ؛ /ˈɔːrl(i)ənz/ OR-l(ee)ənz, /ɔːrˈliːnz/ or-LEENZ,[6] local /ˈɔːrlənz/ OR-lənz;[7] فرنسية: La Nouvelle-Orléans [la nuvɛlɔʁleɑ̃]  (Speaker Icon.svg استمع)) هي مدينة-أبرشية أمريكية، وأكبر مدن ولاية لويزيانا. تقع في جنوب شرق الولاية على ضفاف نهر المسيسيبي. With a population of 383,997 according to the 2020 U.S. census,[8] it is the most populous city in Louisiana and the French Louisiana region;[9] third most populous city in the Deep South; and the twelfth-most populous city in the southeastern United States. Serving as a major port, New Orleans is considered an economic and commercial hub for the broader Gulf Coast region of the United States.

New Orleans
La Nouvelle-Orléans  (فرنسية)
Consolidated city-parish
Central Business District
Bourbon Street
St. Louis Cathedral
New Orleans streetcar
Superdome
University of New Orleans
Crescent City Connection
علم New Orleans
Flag
الختم الرسمي لـ New Orleans
Seal
الشعار الرسمي لـ New Orleans
Logo
الكنية: 
"The Crescent City", "The Big Easy", "The City That Care Forgot", "NOLA", "The City of Yes", "Hollywood South", "The Creole City"
Location within the U.S. state of Louisiana
Location within the U.S. state of Louisiana
الإحداثيات: {{WikidataCoord}} – malformed coordinate data
CountryUnited States
StateLouisiana
ParishOrleans
Founded1718; 306 years ago (1718
أسسهاJean-Baptiste Le Moyne de Bienville
السمِيْPhilippe II, Duke of Orléans (1674–1723)
الحكومة
 • النوعMayor–council
 • MayorLaToya Cantrell (D)
 • CouncilNew Orleans City Council
المساحة
[1]
 • Consolidated city-parish349٫85 ميل² (906٫10 كم²)
 • البر169٫42 ميل² (438٫80 كم²)
 • الماء180٫43 ميل² (467٫30 كم²)
 • العمران
3٬755٫2 ميل² (9٬726٫6 كم²)
المنسوب
−6٫5 to 20 ft (−2 to 6 m)
التعداد
 (2020)[2]
 • Consolidated city-parish383٬997
 • الكثافة2٬267/sq mi (875/km2)
 • Urban
[3]
963٬212 (US: 49th)
 • الكثافة الحضرية3٬563٫8/sq mi (1٬376٫0/km2)
 • العمرانية
1٬270٬530 (US: 45th)
صفة المواطنNew Orleanian
GDP
[4][5]
 • Consolidated city-parish$29.147 billion (2022)
 • MSA$94.031 billion (2022)
منطقة التوقيتUTC−6 (CST)
 • الصيف (التوقيت الصيفي)UTC−5 (CDT)
مفتاح الهاتف504
FIPS code22-55000
GNIS feature ID1629985
الموقع الإلكترونيnola.gov

New Orleans is world-renowned for its distinctive music, Creole cuisine, unique dialects, and its annual celebrations and festivals, most notably Mardi Gras. The historic heart of the city is the French Quarter, known for its French and Spanish Creole architecture and vibrant nightlife along Bourbon Street. The city has been described as the "most unique" in the United States,[10][11][12][13] owing in large part to its cross-cultural and multilingual heritage.[14] Additionally, New Orleans has increasingly been known as "Hollywood South" due to its prominent role in the film industry and in pop culture.[15][16]

Founded in 1718 by French colonists, New Orleans was once the territorial capital of French Louisiana before becoming part of the United States in the Louisiana Purchase of 1803. New Orleans in 1840 was the third most populous city in the United States,[17] and it was the largest city in the American South from the Antebellum era until after World War II. The city has historically been very vulnerable to flooding, due to its high rainfall, low lying elevation, poor natural drainage, and proximity to multiple bodies of water. State and federal authorities have installed a complex system of levees and drainage pumps in an effort to protect the city.[18][19]

New Orleans was severely affected by Hurricane Katrina in August 2005, which flooded more than 80% of the city, killed more than 1,800 people, and displaced thousands of residents, causing a population decline of over 50%.[20] Since Katrina, major redevelopment efforts have led to a rebound in the city's population. Concerns have been expressed about gentrification, new residents buying property in formerly closely knit communities, and displacement of longtime residents.[21][22][23][24] Additionally, high rates of violent crime continue to plague the city with New Orleans experiencing 280 murders in 2022, resulting in the highest per capita homicide rate in the United States.[25][26]

The city and Orleans Parish (فرنسية: paroisse d'Orléans) are coterminous.[27] As of 2017, Orleans Parish is the third most populous parish in Louisiana, behind East Baton Rouge Parish and neighboring Jefferson Parish.[28] The city and parish are bounded by St. Tammany Parish and Lake Pontchartrain to the north, St. Bernard Parish and Lake Borgne to the east, Plaquemines Parish to the south, and Jefferson Parish to the south and west.

The city anchors the larger Greater New Orleans metropolitan area, which had a population of 1,271,845 in 2020.[29] Greater New Orleans is the most populous metropolitan statistical area (MSA) in Louisiana and, since the 2020 census, has been the 46th most populous MSA in the United States.[30]

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أصل الاسم والكنى

 
The New Orleans cityscape in early February 2007

The name of New Orleans derives from the original French name (La Nouvelle-Orléans), which was given to the city in honor of Philippe II, Duke of Orléans, who served as Louis XV's regent from 1715 to 1723.[31] The French city of Orléans itself is named after the Roman emperor Aurelian, originally being known as Aurelianum. Thus, by extension, since New Orleans is also named after Aurelian, its name in Latin would translate to Nova Aurelia.

Following France's defeat in the Seven Years' War and the Treaty of Paris, which was signed in 1763, France transferred possession of Louisiana to Spain. The Spanish renamed the city to Nueva Orleans (النطق الإسپاني: [ˌnweβa oɾleˈans]), which was used until 1800.[32] When the United States acquired possession from France in 1803, the French name was adopted and anglicized to become the modern name, which is still in use today.

New Orleans has several nicknames, including these:

  • Crescent City, alluding to the course of the Lower Mississippi River around and through the city.[33]
  • The Big Easy, possibly a reference by musicians in the early 20th century to the relative ease of finding work there.[34][35]
  • The City that Care Forgot, used since at least 1938,[36] referring to the outwardly easygoing, carefree nature of the residents.[35]
  • NOLA, the acronym for New Orleans, Louisiana.


التاريخ

المقالة الرئيسية: تاريخ نيو أورلينز

فترة الاستعمار الفرنسي-الإسپاني

المقالة الرئيسية: Louisiana (New France), New France, Treaty of Paris (1763), Louisiana (New Spain), and New Spain
انظر أيضاً: Seven Years' War, French and Indian War, Gulf Coast campaign, Spain and the American Revolutionary War, Third Treaty of San Ildefonso, and Treaty of Aranjuez (1801)
الانتماءات التاريخية
  مملكة فرنسا 1718–1763
  مملكة إسپانيا 1763–1802
  الجمهورية الفرنسية الأولى 1802–1803
  الولايات المتحدة 1803–1861
  ولاية لويزيانا 1861
  الولايات الكونفدرالية 1861–1862
  الولايات المتحدة 1862–الحاضر

La Nouvelle-Orléans (New Orleans) was founded in the spring of 1718 (May 7 has become the traditional date to mark the anniversary, but the actual day is unknown)[37] by the French Mississippi Company, under the direction of Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne de Bienville, on land inhabited by the Chitimacha. It was named for Philippe II, Duke of Orléans, who was regent of the Kingdom of France at the time.[31] His title came from the French city of Orléans. The French colony of Louisiana was ceded to the Spanish Empire in the 1763 Treaty of Paris, following France's defeat by Great Britain in the Seven Years' War. During the American Revolutionary War, New Orleans was an important port for smuggling aid to the American revolutionaries, and transporting military equipment and supplies up the Mississippi River. Beginning in the 1760s, Filipinos began to settle in and around New Orleans.[38] Bernardo de Gálvez y Madrid, Count of Gálvez successfully directed a southern campaign against the British from the city in 1779.[39] Nueva Orleans (the name of New Orleans in Spanish)[40] remained under Spanish control until 1803, when it reverted briefly to French rule. Nearly all of the surviving 18th-century architecture of the Vieux Carré (French Quarter) dates from the Spanish period, notably excepting the Old Ursuline Convent.[41]

 
The Revolt took place in what is now Natchez National Historical Park in Natchez, Mississippi.

As a French colony, Louisiana faced struggles with numerous Native American tribes, who were navigating the competing interests of France, Spain, and England, as well as traditional rivals. Notably, the Natchez, whose traditional lands were along the Mississippi near the modern city of Natchez, Mississippi, had a series of wars culminating in the Natchez Revolt that began in 1729 with the Natchez overrunning Fort Rosalie. Approximately 230 French colonists were killed and the Natchez settlement destroyed, causing fear and concern in New Orleans and the rest of the territory.[42] In retaliation, then-governor Étienne Perier launched a campaign to completely destroy the Natchez nation and its Native allies.[43] By 1731, the Natchez people had been killed, enslaved, or dispersed among other tribes, but the campaign soured relations between France and the territory's Native Americans leading directly into the Chickasaw Wars of the 1730s.[44]

Relations with Louisiana's Native American population remained a concern into the 1740s for governor Marquis de Vaudreuil. In the early 1740s traders from the Thirteen Colonies crossed into the Appalachian Mountains. The Native American tribes would now operate dependent on which of various European colonists would most benefit them. Several of these tribes and especially the Chickasaw and Choctaw would trade goods and gifts for their loyalty.[45] The economic issue in the colony, which continued under Vaudreuil, resulted in many raids by Native American tribes, taking advantage of the French weakness. In 1747 and 1748, the Chickasaw would raid along the east bank of the Mississippi all the way south to Baton Rouge. These raids would often force residents of French Louisiana to take refuge in New Orleans proper.

Inability to find labor was the most pressing issue in the young colony. The colonists turned to sub-Saharan African slaves to make their investments in Louisiana profitable. In the late 1710s the transatlantic slave trade imported enslaved Africans into the colony. This led to the biggest shipment in 1716 where several trading ships appeared with slaves as cargo to the local residents in a one-year span.

By 1724, the large number of blacks in Louisiana prompted the institutionalizing of laws governing slavery within the colony.[46] These laws required that slaves be baptized in the Roman Catholic faith, slaves be married in the church; the slave law formed in the 1720s is known as the Code Noir, which would bleed into the antebellum period of the American South as well. Louisiana slave culture had its own distinct Afro-Creole society that called on past cultures and the situation for slaves in the New World. Afro-Creole was present in religious beliefs and the Louisiana Creole language. The religion most associated with this period was called Voodoo.[47][48]

In the city of New Orleans an inspiring mixture of foreign influences created a melting pot of culture that is still celebrated today. By the end of French colonization in Louisiana, New Orleans was recognized commercially in the Atlantic world. Its inhabitants traded across the French commercial system. New Orleans was a hub for this trade both physically and culturally because it served as the exit point to the rest of the globe for the interior of the North American continent.

In one instance the French government established a chapter house of sisters in New Orleans. The Ursuline sisters after being sponsored by the Company of the Indies, founded a convent in the city in 1727.[49] At the end of the colonial era, the Ursuline Academy maintained a house of 70 boarding and 100 day students. Today numerous schools in New Orleans can trace their lineage from this academy.

 
1724 plan for Saint Louis Parish Church, New Orleans, Louisiana, by Adrien de Pauger

Another notable example is the street plan and architecture still distinguishing New Orleans today. French Louisiana had early architects in the province who were trained as military engineers and were now assigned to design government buildings. Pierre Le Blond de Tour and Adrien de Pauger, for example, planned many early fortifications, along with the street plan for the city of New Orleans.[50] After them in the 1740s, Ignace François Broutin, as engineer-in-chief of Louisiana, reworked the architecture of New Orleans with an extensive public works program.

French policy-makers in Paris attempted to set political and economic norms for New Orleans. It acted autonomously in much of its cultural and physical aspects, but also stayed in communication with the foreign trends as well.

After the French relinquished West Louisiana to the Spanish, New Orleans merchants attempted to ignore Spanish rule and even re-institute French control on the colony. The citizens of New Orleans held a series of public meetings during 1765 to keep the populace in opposition of the establishment of Spanish rule. Anti-Spanish passions in New Orleans reached their highest level after two years of Spanish administration in Louisiana. On October 27, 1768, a mob of local residents, spiked the guns guarding New Orleans and took control of the city from the Spanish.[51] The rebellion organized a group to sail for Paris, where it met with officials of the French government. This group brought with them a long memorial to summarize the abuses the colony had endured from the Spanish. King Louis XV and his ministers reaffirmed Spain's sovereignty over Louisiana.

فترة الإقليم ضمن الولايات المتحدة

المقالة الرئيسية: شراء لويزيانا, إقليم أورليانز, and Dominican Creoles

The Third Treaty of San Ildefonso in 1800 restored French control of New Orleans and Louisiana, but Napoleon sold both to the United States in the Louisiana Purchase in 1803.[52] Thereafter, the city grew rapidly with influxes of Americans, French, Creoles and Africans. Later immigrants were Irish, Germans, Poles and Italians. Major commodity crops of sugar and cotton were cultivated with slave labor on nearby large plantations.

Between 1791 and 1810, thousands of St. Dominican refugees from the Haitian Revolution, both whites and free people of color (affranchis or gens de couleur libres), arrived in New Orleans; a number brought their slaves with them, many of whom were native Africans or of full-blood descent.[53] While Governor Claiborne and other officials wanted to keep out additional free black people, the French Creoles wanted to increase the French-speaking population. In addition to bolstering the territory's French-speaking population, these refugees had a significant impact on the culture of Louisiana, including developing its sugar industry and cultural institutions.[54]

As more refugees were allowed into the Territory of Orleans, St. Dominican refugees who had first gone to Cuba also arrived.[55] Many of the white Francophones had been deported by officials in Cuba in 1809 as retaliation for Bonapartist schemes.[56] Nearly 90 percent of these immigrants settled in New Orleans. The 1809 migration brought 2,731 whites, 3,102 free people of color (of mixed-race European and African descent), and 3,226 slaves of primarily African descent, doubling the city's population. The city became 63 percent black, a greater proportion than Charleston, South Carolina's 53 percent at that time.[55]


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البداية في القرن التاسع عشر

انظر أيضاً: نيو أورلينز في الحرب الأهلية
 
Map of New Orleans from the 1888 Meyers Konversations-Lexikon

أنشئت مدينة نيو أورلينز في عام 1718 بواسطة شركة المسيسيبي الفرنسية ، تحت إدارة جان بابتست لو موين دي بينفيل. وقد سميت على إسم المدينة الفرنسية أورلينز. وكانت في البداية تحت الحكم الفرنسي ثم أصبحت تحت الحكم الأسباني حتى عام 1801 ، ثم رجعت للحكم الفرنسي مرة أخرى. بعد ذلك باع نابليون العديد من الأراضي من ضمنها أراضي نيو أورلينز لولاية لويزيانا ، وبدأت المدينة في النمو السريع ، وكان من أشهر محصولاتها القطن و السكر والتي كان يعتمد في زراعتهم على العبيد القادمين من خارج المدينة.

معركة نيو أورلينز

المقالة الرئيسية: معركة نيو أورلينز and حرب 1812
 
معركة نيو أورلينز (1815)
 
Plan of the city and suburbs of New Orleans: from a survey made in 1815[57]

During the final campaign of the War of 1812, the British sent a force of 11,000 in an attempt to capture New Orleans. Despite great challenges, General Andrew Jackson, with support from the U.S. Navy, successfully cobbled together a force of militia from Louisiana and Mississippi, U.S. Army regulars, a large contingent of Tennessee state militia, Kentucky frontiersmen and local privateers (the latter led by the pirate Jean Lafitte), to decisively defeat the British, led by Sir Edward Pakenham, in the Battle of New Orleans on January 8, 1815.[58]

The armies had not learned of the Treaty of Ghent, which had been signed on December 24, 1814 (however, the treaty did not call for cessation of hostilities until after both governments had ratified it. The U.S. government ratified it on February 16, 1815). The fighting in Louisiana began in December 1814 and did not end until late January, after the Americans held off the Royal Navy during a ten-day siege of Fort St. Philip (the Royal Navy went on to capture Fort Bowyer near Mobile, before the commanders received news of the peace treaty).[58]

الميناء

 
Mississippi River steamboats في نيو أورلينز، 1853

As a port, New Orleans played a major role during the antebellum period in the Atlantic slave trade. The port handled commodities for export from the interior and imported goods from other countries, which were warehoused and transferred in New Orleans to smaller vessels and distributed along the Mississippi River watershed. The river was filled with steamboats, flatboats and sailing ships. Despite its role in the slave trade, New Orleans at the time also had the largest and most prosperous community of free persons of color in the nation, who were often educated, middle-class property owners.[59][60]

Dwarfing the other cities in the Antebellum South, New Orleans had the U.S.' largest slave market. The market expanded after the United States ended the international trade in 1808. Two-thirds of the more than one million slaves brought to the Deep South arrived via forced migration in the domestic slave trade. The money generated by the sale of slaves in the Upper South has been estimated at 15 percent of the value of the staple crop economy. The slaves were collectively valued at half a billion dollars. The trade spawned an ancillary economy—transportation, housing and clothing, fees, etc., estimated at 13.5 percent of the price per person, amounting to tens of billions of dollars (2005 dollars, adjusted for inflation) during the antebellum period, with New Orleans as a prime beneficiary.[61]

According to historian Paul Lachance,

the addition of white immigrants [from Saint-Domingue] to the white creole population enabled French-speakers to remain a majority of the white population until almost 1830. If a substantial proportion of free persons of color and slaves had not also spoken French, however, the Gallic community would have become a minority of the total population as early as 1820.[62]

After the Louisiana Purchase, numerous Anglo-Americans migrated to the city. The population doubled in the 1830s and by 1840, New Orleans had become the nation's wealthiest and the third-most populous city, after New York and Baltimore.[63] German and Irish immigrants began arriving in the 1840s, working as port laborers. In this period, the state legislature passed more restrictions on manumissions of slaves and virtually ended it in 1852.[64]

In the 1850s, white Francophones remained an intact and vibrant community in New Orleans. They maintained instruction in French in two of the city's four school districts (all served white students).[65] In 1860, the city had 13,000 free people of color (gens de couleur libres), the class of free, mostly mixed-race people that expanded in number during French and Spanish rule. They set up some private schools for their children. The census recorded 81 percent of the free people of color as mulatto, a term used to cover all degrees of mixed race.[64] Mostly part of the Francophone group, they constituted the artisan, educated and professional class of African Americans. The mass of blacks were still enslaved, working at the port, in domestic service, in crafts, and mostly on the many large, surrounding sugarcane plantations.

Throughout New Orleans' history, until the early 20th century when medical and scientific advances ameliorated the situation, the city suffered repeated epidemics of yellow fever and other tropical and infectious diseases.[66] In the first half of the 19th century, yellow fever epidemics killed over 150,000 people in New Orleans.[67]

After growing by 45 percent in the 1850s, by 1860, the city had nearly 170,000 people.[68] It had grown in wealth, with a "per capita income [that] was second in the nation and the highest in the South."[68] The city had a role as the "primary commercial gateway for the nation's booming midsection."[68] The port was the nation's third largest in terms of tonnage of imported goods, after Boston and New York, handling 659,000 tons in 1859.[68]

الحرب الأهلية–فترة إعادة البناء

انظر أيضاً: New Orleans in the American Civil War and Louisiana in the American Civil War
 
The starving people of New Orleans under Union occupation during the Civil War, 1862

As the Creole elite feared, the American Civil War changed their world. In April 1862, following the city's occupation by the Union Navy after the Battle of Forts Jackson and St. Philip, Gen. Benjamin F. Butler – a respected Massachusetts lawyer serving in that state's militia – was appointed military governor. New Orleans residents supportive of the Confederacy nicknamed him "Beast" Butler, because of an order he issued. After his troops had been assaulted and harassed in the streets by women still loyal to the Confederate cause, his order warned that such future occurrences would result in his men treating such women as those "plying their avocation in the streets", implying that they would treat the women like prostitutes. Accounts of this spread widely. He also came to be called "Spoons" Butler because of the alleged looting that his troops did while occupying the city, during which time he himself supposedly pilfered silver flatware.[69]

Significantly, Butler abolished French-language instruction in city schools. Statewide measures in 1864 and, after the war, 1868 further strengthened the English-only policy imposed by federal representatives. With the predominance of English speakers, that language had already become dominant in business and government.[65] By the end of the 19th century, French usage had faded. It was also under pressure from Irish, Italian and German immigrants.[70] However, as late as 1902 "one-fourth of the population of the city spoke French in ordinary daily intercourse, while another two-fourths was able to understand the language perfectly,"[71] and as late as 1945, many elderly Creole women spoke no English.[72] The last major French language newspaper, L'Abeille de la Nouvelle-Orléans (New Orleans Bee), ceased publication on December 27, 1923, after 96 years.[73] According to some sources, Le Courrier de la Nouvelle Orleans continued until 1955.[74]

As the city was captured and occupied early in the war, it was spared the destruction through warfare suffered by many other cities of the American South. The Union Army eventually extended its control north along the Mississippi River and along the coastal areas. As a result, most of the southern portion of Louisiana was originally exempted from the liberating provisions of the 1863 Emancipation Proclamation issued by President Abraham Lincoln. Large numbers of rural ex-slaves and some free people of color from the city volunteered for the first regiments of Black troops in the War. Led by Brigadier General Daniel Ullman (1810–1892), of the 78th Regiment of New York State Volunteers Militia, they were known as the "Corps d'Afrique". While that name had been used by a militia before the war, that group was composed of free people of color. The new group was made up mostly of former slaves. They were supplemented in the last two years of the War by newly organized United States Colored Troops, who played an increasingly important part in the war.[75]

Violence throughout the South, especially the Memphis Riots of 1866 followed by the New Orleans Riot in the same year, led Congress to pass the Reconstruction Act and the Fourteenth Amendment, extending the protections of full citizenship to freedmen and free people of color. Louisiana and Texas were put under the authority of the "Fifth Military District" of the United States during Reconstruction. Louisiana was readmitted to the Union in 1868. Its Constitution of 1868 granted universal male suffrage and established universal public education. Both blacks and whites were elected to local and state offices. In 1872, lieutenant governor P.B.S. Pinchback, who was of mixed race, succeeded Henry Clay Warmouth for a brief period as Republican governor of Louisiana, becoming the first governor of African descent of a U.S. state (the next African American to serve as governor of a U.S. state was Douglas Wilder, elected in Virginia in 1989). New Orleans operated a racially integrated public school system during this period.

Wartime damage to levees and cities along the Mississippi River adversely affected southern crops and trade. The federal government contributed to restoring infrastructure. The nationwide financial recession and Panic of 1873 adversely affected businesses and slowed economic recovery.

 
Black and white dockworkers resting on cotton bales.

From 1868, elections in Louisiana were marked by violence, as white insurgents tried to suppress black voting and disrupt Republican Party gatherings. The disputed 1872 gubernatorial election resulted in conflicts that ran for years. The "White League", an insurgent paramilitary group that supported the Democratic Party, was organized in 1874 and operated in the open, violently suppressing the black vote and running off Republican officeholders. In 1874, in the Battle of Liberty Place, 5,000 members of the White League fought with city police to take over the state offices for the Democratic candidate for governor, holding them for three days. By 1876, such tactics resulted in the white Democrats, the so-called Redeemers, regaining political control of the state legislature. The federal government gave up and withdrew its troops in 1877, ending Reconstruction.

In 1892 the racially integrated unions of New Orleans led a general strike in the city from November 8 to 12, shutting down the city & winning the vast majority of their demands.[76][77]


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فترة جيم كرو

Dixiecrats passed Jim Crow laws, establishing racial segregation in public facilities. In 1889, the legislature passed a constitutional amendment incorporating a "grandfather clause" that effectively disfranchised freedmen as well as the propertied people of color manumitted before the war. Unable to vote, African Americans could not serve on juries or in local office, and were closed out of formal politics for generations. The Southern U.S. was ruled by a white Democratic Party. Public schools were racially segregated and remained so until 1960.

New Orleans' large community of well-educated, often French-speaking free persons of color (gens de couleur libres), who had been free prior to the Civil War, fought against Jim Crow. They organized the Comité des Citoyens (Citizens Committee) to work for civil rights. As part of their legal campaign, they recruited one of their own, Homer Plessy, to test whether Louisiana's newly enacted Separate Car Act was constitutional. Plessy boarded a commuter train departing New Orleans for Covington, Louisiana, sat in the car reserved for whites only, and was arrested. The case resulting from this incident, Plessy v. Ferguson, was heard by the U.S. Supreme Court in 1896. The court ruled that "separate but equal" accommodations were constitutional, effectively upholding Jim Crow measures.

In practice, African American public schools and facilities were underfunded across the South. The Supreme Court ruling contributed to this period as the nadir of race relations in the United States. The rate of lynchings of black men was high across the South, as other states also disfranchised blacks and sought to impose Jim Crow. Nativist prejudices also surfaced. Anti-Italian sentiment in 1891 contributed to the lynchings of 11 Italians, some of whom had been acquitted of the murder of the police chief. Some were shot and killed in the jail where they were detained. It was the largest mass lynching in U.S. history.[78][79] In July 1900 the city was swept by white mobs rioting after Robert Charles, a young African American, killed a policeman and temporarily escaped. The mob killed him and an estimated 20 other blacks; seven whites died in the days-long conflict, until a state militia suppressed it.

القرن العشرين

 
Esplanade Avenue at Burgundy Street, looking lakewards (north) towards Lake Pontchartrain in 1900
 
1943 waiting line at wartime Rationing Board office in New Orleans
 
Richard Nixon in New Orleans, August 1970. Royal at Iberville Streets, heading to Canal Street.

New Orleans' economic and population zenith in relation to other American cities occurred in the antebellum period. It was the nation's fifth-largest city in 1860 (after New York, Philadelphia, Boston and Baltimore) and was significantly larger than all other southern cities.[80] From the mid-19th century onward rapid economic growth shifted to other areas, while New Orleans' relative importance steadily declined. The growth of railways and highways decreased river traffic, diverting goods to other transportation corridors and markets.[80] Thousands of the most ambitious people of color left the state in the Great Migration around World War II and after, many for West Coast destinations. From the late 1800s, most censuses recorded New Orleans slipping down the ranks in the list of largest American cities (New Orleans' population still continued to increase throughout the period, but at a slower rate than before the Civil War).

In 1929 the New Orleans streetcar strike during which serious unrest occurred.[81] It is also credited for the creation of the distinctly Louisianan Po' boy sandwich.[82][83]

By the mid-20th century, New Orleanians recognized that their city was no longer the leading urban area in the South. By 1950, Houston, Dallas, and Atlanta exceeded New Orleans in size, and in 1960 Miami eclipsed New Orleans, even as the latter's population reached its historic peak.[80] As with other older American cities, highway construction and suburban development drew residents from the center city to newer housing outside. The 1970 census recorded the first absolute decline in population since the city became part of the United States in 1803. The Greater New Orleans metropolitan area continued expanding in population, albeit more slowly than other major Sun Belt cities. While the port remained one of the nation's largest, automation and containerization cost many jobs. The city's former role as banker to the South was supplanted by larger peer cities. New Orleans' economy had always been based more on trade and financial services than on manufacturing, but the city's relatively small manufacturing sector also shrank after World War II. Despite some economic development successes under the administrations of DeLesseps "Chep" Morrison (1946–1961) and Victor "Vic" Schiro (1961–1970), metropolitan New Orleans' growth rate consistently lagged behind more vigorous cities.

حركة الحقوق المدنية

During the later years of Morrison's administration, and for the entirety of Schiro's, the city was a center of the Civil Rights movement. The Southern Christian Leadership Conference was founded in New Orleans, and lunch counter sit-ins were held in Canal Street department stores. A prominent and violent series of confrontations occurred in 1960 when the city attempted school desegregation, following the Supreme Court ruling in Brown v. Board of Education (1954). When six-year-old Ruby Bridges integrated William Frantz Elementary School in the Ninth Ward, she was the first child of color to attend a previously all-white school in the South. Much controversy preceded the 1956 Sugar Bowl at Tulane Stadium, when the Pitt Panthers, with African-American fullback Bobby Grier on the roster, met the Georgia Tech Yellow Jackets.[84] There had been controversy over whether Grier should be allowed to play due to his race, and whether Georgia Tech should even play at all due to Georgia's Governor Marvin Griffin's opposition to racial integration.[85][86][87] After Griffin publicly sent a telegram to the state's Board Of Regents requesting Georgia Tech not to engage in racially integrated events, Georgia Tech's president Blake R. Van Leer rejected the request and threatened to resign. The game went on as planned.[88]

The Civil Rights movement's success in gaining federal passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965 renewed constitutional rights, including voting for blacks. Together, these resulted in the most far-reaching changes in New Orleans' 20th century history.[89] Though legal and civil equality were re-established by the end of the 1960s, a large gap in income levels and educational attainment persisted between the city's White and African American communities.[90] As the middle class and wealthier members of both races left the center city, its population's income level dropped, and it became proportionately more African American. From 1980, the African American majority elected primarily officials from its own community. They struggled to narrow the gap by creating conditions conducive to the economic uplift of the African American community.

New Orleans became increasingly dependent on tourism as an economic mainstay during the administrations of Sidney Barthelemy (1986–1994) and Marc Morial (1994–2002). Relatively low levels of educational attainment, high rates of household poverty, and rising crime threatened the city's prosperity in the later decades of the century.[90] The negative effects of these socioeconomic conditions aligned poorly with the changes in the late-20th century to the economy of the United States, which reflected a post-industrial, knowledge-based paradigm in which mental skills and education were more important to advancement than manual skills.

الصرف والسيطرة على الفيضان

انظر أيضاً: الصرف في نيو أورلينز
 
A view of the New Orleans Central Business District, as seen from the Mississippi River يوإس‌إس New Orleans (LPD-18) in foreground (2007)

In the 20th century, New Orleans' government and business leaders believed they needed to drain and develop outlying areas to provide for the city's expansion. The most ambitious development during this period was a drainage plan devised by engineer and inventor A. Baldwin Wood, designed to break the surrounding swamp's stranglehold on the city's geographic expansion. Until then, urban development in New Orleans was largely limited to higher ground along the natural river levees and bayous.

Wood's pump system allowed the city to drain huge tracts of swamp and marshland and expand into low-lying areas. Over the 20th century, rapid subsidence, both natural and human-induced, resulted in these newly populated areas subsiding to several feet below sea level.[91][92]

New Orleans was vulnerable to flooding even before the city's footprint departed from the natural high ground near the Mississippi River. In the late 20th century, however, scientists and New Orleans residents gradually became aware of the city's increased vulnerability. In 1965, flooding from Hurricane Betsy killed dozens of residents, although the majority of the city remained dry. The rain-induced flood of May 8, 1995, demonstrated the weakness of the pumping system. After that event, measures were undertaken to dramatically upgrade pumping capacity. By the 1980s and 1990s, scientists observed that extensive, rapid, and ongoing erosion of the marshlands and swamp surrounding New Orleans, especially that related to the Mississippi River–Gulf Outlet Canal, had the unintended result of leaving the city more vulnerable than before to hurricane-induced catastrophic storm surges.

القرن 21

إعصار كاترينا

المقالة الرئيسية: إعصار كاترينا
 
An aerial view from a United States Navy helicopter showing floodwaters around the entire downtown New Orleans area (2005).
 
Hurricane Katrina at its New Orleans landfall
انظر أيضاً: Effects of Hurricane Katrina in New Orleans and Drainage in New Orleans

في نهاية أغسطس 2005 وصل إعصار كاترينا المدمر إلى مدينة نيو أورلينز وكذلك عبر الإعصار منطقة الخليج الأمريكي ، وقد تم إجلاء معظم سكان المدينة ، وتعتبر تلك الكارثة من أسوأ الكوارث في التاريخ الأمريكي.[93] تم إعادة بناء الجسور والسدود بواسطة قوات الجيش الأمريكي ، والتي كانت قد إنهارت بعد إجتياج الإعصار للمدينة. تم إنقاذ 80 % من سكان المدينة وأجلي منهم 10.000 مواطن للمدن المجاورة في ولاية لويزيانا.[94]

إعصار ريتا

المقالة الرئيسية: إعصار ريتا

بعدما شرع في التخطيط لإصلاح وإعادة بناء مدينة نيو أورلينز بعدما إجتاحها إعصار كاترينا وسبب في تدمير الكثير من المنشئات ، جاء إعصار ريتا وذلك في سبتمبر 2005 مما سبب تأجيل مهام إعادة الإعمار.[95]

الإنتعاش بعد الكوارث

المقالة الرئيسية: إعادة بناء نيو أورلينز
 
The New Orleans cityscape as of 2007.


الجغرافيا

 
A true-color satellite image taken on NASA's Landsat 7, 2004

New Orleans is located in the Mississippi River Delta, south of Lake Pontchartrain, on the banks of the Mississippi River, approximately 105 miles (169 km) upriver from the Gulf of Mexico. According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the city's area is 350 square miles (910 km2), of which 169 square miles (440 km2) is land and 181 square miles (470 km2) (52%) is water.[96] The area along the river is characterized by ridges and hollows.

المنسوب

انظر أيضاً: الصرف في نيو أورلينز
 
Vertical cross-section, showing maximum levee height of 23 feet (7.0 m)

New Orleans was originally settled on the river's natural levees or high ground. After the Flood Control Act of 1965, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers built floodwalls and man-made levees around a much larger geographic footprint that included previous marshland and swamp. Over time, pumping of water from marshland allowed for development into lower elevation areas. Today, half of the city is at or below local mean sea level, while the other half is slightly above sea level. Evidence suggests that portions of the city may be dropping in elevation due to subsidence.[97]

A 2007 study by Tulane and Xavier University suggested that "51%... of the contiguous urbanized portions of Orleans, Jefferson, and St. Bernard parishes lie at or above sea level," with the more densely populated areas generally on higher ground. The average elevation of the city is currently between 1 and 2 feet (0.30 and 0.61 m) below sea level, with some portions of the city as high as 20 feet (6 m) at the base of the river levee in Uptown and others as low as 7 feet (2 m) below sea level in the farthest reaches of Eastern New Orleans.[98][99] A study published by the ASCE Journal of Hydrologic Engineering in 2016, however, stated:

...most of New Orleans proper—about 65%—is at or below mean sea level, as defined by the average elevation of Lake Pontchartrain[100]

The magnitude of subsidence potentially caused by the draining of natural marsh in the New Orleans area and southeast Louisiana is a topic of debate. A study published in Geology in 2006 by an associate professor at Tulane University claims:

While erosion and wetland loss are huge problems along Louisiana's coast, the basement 30 feet (9.1 m) to 50 feet (15 m) beneath much of the Mississippi Delta has been highly stable for the past 8,000 years with negligible subsidence rates.[101]

The study noted, however, that the results did not necessarily apply to the Mississippi River Delta, nor the New Orleans metropolitan area proper. On the other hand, a report by the American Society of Civil Engineers claims that "New Orleans is subsiding (sinking)":[102]

Large portions of Orleans, St. Bernard, and Jefferson parishes are currently below sea level—and continue to sink. New Orleans is built on thousands of feet of soft sand, silt, and clay. Subsidence, or settling of the ground surface, occurs naturally due to the consolidation and oxidation of organic soils (called "marsh" in New Orleans) and local groundwater pumping. In the past, flooding and deposition of sediments from the Mississippi River counterbalanced the natural subsidence, leaving southeast Louisiana at or above sea level. However, due to major flood control structures being built upstream on the Mississippi River and levees being built around New Orleans, fresh layers of sediment are not replenishing the ground lost by subsidence.[102]

In May 2016, NASA published a study which suggested that most areas were, in fact, experiencing subsidence at a "highly variable rate" which was "generally consistent with, but somewhat higher than, previous studies."[103]

أفق المدينة

انظر أيضاً: أحياء نيو أورلينز
 
Bourbon Street, New Orleans, in 2003, looking towards Canal Street
 
New Orleans contains many distinctive neighborhoods.

The Central Business District is located immediately north and west of the Mississippi and was historically called the "American Quarter" or "American Sector". It was developed after the heart of French and Spanish settlement. It includes Lafayette Square. Most streets in this area fan out from a central point. Major streets include Canal Street, Poydras Street, Tulane Avenue and Loyola Avenue. Canal Street divides the traditional "downtown" area from the "uptown" area.

Every street crossing Canal Street between the Mississippi River and Rampart Street, which is the northern edge of the French Quarter, has a different name for the "uptown" and "downtown" portions. For example, St. Charles Avenue, known for its street car line, is called Royal Street below Canal Street, though where it traverses the Central Business District between Canal and Lee Circle, it is properly called St. Charles Street.[104] Elsewhere in the city, Canal Street serves as the dividing point between the "South" and "North" portions of various streets. In the local parlance downtown means "downriver from Canal Street", while uptown means "upriver from Canal Street". Downtown neighborhoods include the French Quarter, Tremé, the 7th Ward, Faubourg Marigny, Bywater (the Upper Ninth Ward), and the Lower Ninth Ward. Uptown neighborhoods include the Warehouse District, the Lower Garden District, the Garden District, the Irish Channel, the University District, Carrollton, Gert Town, Fontainebleau and Broadmoor. However, the Warehouse and the Central Business District are frequently called "Downtown" as a specific region, as in the Downtown Development District.

Other major districts within the city include Bayou St. John, Mid-City, Gentilly, Lakeview, Lakefront, New Orleans East and Algiers.

أعلى المباني

انظر أيضاً: List of tallest buildings in New Orleans
 
Skyline of the Central Business District of New Orleans

For much of its history, New Orleans' skyline displayed only low- and mid-rise structures. The soft soils are susceptible to subsidence, and there was doubt about the feasibility of constructing high rises. Developments in engineering throughout the 20th century eventually made it possible to build sturdy foundations in the foundations that underlie the structures. In the 1960s, the World Trade Center New Orleans and Plaza Tower demonstrated skyscrapers' viability. One Shell Square became the city's tallest building in 1972. The oil boom of the 1970s and early 1980s redefined New Orleans' skyline with the development of the Poydras Street corridor. Most are clustered along Canal Street and Poydras Street in the Central Business District.

الاسم الطوابق الارتفاع
One Shell Square 51 697 ft (212 m)
Place St. Charles 53 645 ft (197 m)
Plaza Tower 45 531 ft (162 m)
Energy Centre 39 530 ft (160 m)
First Bank and Trust Tower 36 481 ft (147 m)

المناخ

انظر أيضاً: Hurricane preparedness for New Orleans
 
Snow falls on St. Charles Avenue in December 2008.

التهديد من الأعاصير المدارية

 
Hurricanes of Category 3 or greater passing within 100 miles, from 1852 to 2005 (NOAA)

الجغرافيا

 
A true-color satellite image of New Orleans taken on NASA's Landsat 7
 
Elevation of New Orleans

تقع مدينة نيو أورلينز على ضفاف نهر المسيسيبي في أتجاه مصب خليج المكسيك. وتبعا لتقديرات مكتب التعداد الأمريكي ، فإن المساحة الكلية لمدينة نيو أورلينز تبلغ 350.2 ميل مربع.[110] تقع المدينة على دلتا نهر المسيسيبي في الضفة الغربية من النهر وجنوب بحيرة بونشارترين. وتتميز المساحة على إمتداد النهر بالمنحدرات والتعاريج.

المناخ

نيو اورلينز
جدول الطقس (التفسير)
يفمأمييأسأند
 
 
5.9
 
62
43
 
 
5.5
 
65
46
 
 
5.2
 
72
53
 
 
5
 
78
58
 
 
4.6
 
85
66
 
 
6.8
 
89
72
 
 
6.2
 
91
74
 
 
6.2
 
91
74
 
 
5.6
 
87
71
 
 
3.1
 
80
60
 
 
5.1
 
71
52
 
 
5.1
 
65
46
متوسطات درجات الحرارة القصوى والدنيا - °ف
إجمالي الهطل - بوصة
المصدر: Weather.com[111]
 
Hurricanes of Category 3 or greater passing within 100 km of New Orleans

يتميز مناخ نيو أورليانز بأنه مناخ شبه مداري رطب مع شتاء معتدل قصير و صيف حار رطب. في شهر يناير تصل درجات الحرارة أقل معدلاتها 43 F وفي وسط النهار تصل 62 ف. في شهر يوليو تصل درجات الحرارة إلى 74 ف, وأعلى درجاتها 91 ف. أقل درجة حرارة سجلت في المدينة كانت في 13 فبراير 1899 حيث وصلت 7 ف ، أما أعلى درجة حرارة سجلت فكانت في 22 أغسطس 1980 حيث وصلت 102 F. متوسط كمية هطول الأمطار تصل إلى 6.4 مم سنويا. ويعتبر شهر أكتوبر أكثر شهور السنة جفافا في المدينة.[112]

المنظر العام للمدينة

 
مدينة نيو اورلينز ونهر المسيسيبي
 
Bourbon Street, New Orleans, in 2003, looking towards Canal Street.
انظر أيضاً: Wards of New Orleans and أحياء نيو أورلينز
 
New Orleans, Chartres Street looking towards Canal Street, (2004).

الطراز المعماري

 
One Shell Square, at 51 floors, stands as the tallest building in New Orleans.
 
An aerial view of New Orleans (1999).
انظر أيضاً: قائمة أطول المباني في نيو أورلينز

السياحة والثقافة

تبعا لدليل السياحة الحالي ، تعتبر نيو أورلينز في قائمة العشر مدن الأكثر زيارة في الولايات المتحدة ، وتعتبر السياحة هي النشاط الرئيسي في إقتصاد المدينة.[113]

الترفيه والفنون المسرحية

المقالة الرئيسية: موسيقى نيو أورلينز
 
Mounted Krewe Officers in the Thoth Parade during Mardi Gras.

الفيلم

الطعام

المقالة الرئيسية: Louisiana Creole cuisine
المقالة الرئيسية: Cajun cuisine

الرياضة

المقالة الرئيسية: الرياضة في نيو أورلينز

الإقتصاد

 
A tanker on the Mississippi River in New Orleans
 
Intracoastal Waterway near New Orleans

New Orleans operates one of the world's largest and busiest ports and metropolitan New Orleans is a center of maritime industry.[114] The region accounts for a significant portion of the nation's oil refining and petrochemical production, and serves as a white-collar corporate base for onshore and offshore petroleum and natural gas production. Since the beginning of the 21st century, New Orleans has also grown into a technology hub.[115][116]

New Orleans is also a center for higher learning, with over 50,000 students enrolled in the region's eleven two- and four-year degree-granting institutions. Tulane University, a top-50 research university, is located in Uptown. Metropolitan New Orleans is a major regional hub for the health care industry and boasts a small, globally competitive manufacturing sector. The center city possesses a rapidly growing, entrepreneurial creative industries sector and is renowned for its cultural tourism. Greater New Orleans, Inc. (GNO, Inc.)[117] acts as the first point-of-contact for regional economic development, coordinating between Louisiana's Department of Economic Development and the various business development agencies.

Port

New Orleans began as a strategically located trading entrepôt and it remains, above all, a crucial transportation hub and distribution center for waterborne commerce. The Port of New Orleans is the fifth-largest in the United States based on cargo volume, and second-largest in the state after the Port of South Louisiana. It is the twelfth-largest in the U.S. based on cargo value. The Port of South Louisiana, also located in the New Orleans area, is the world's busiest in terms of bulk tonnage. When combined with Port of New Orleans, it forms the 4th-largest port system in volume. Many shipbuilding, shipping, logistics, freight forwarding and commodity brokerage firms either are based in metropolitan New Orleans or maintain a local presence. Examples include Intermarine,[118] Bisso Towboat,[119] Northrop Grumman Ship Systems,[120] Trinity Yachts, Expeditors International,[121] Bollinger Shipyards, IMTT, International Coffee Corp, Boasso America, Transoceanic Shipping, Transportation Consultants Inc., Dupuy Storage & Forwarding and Silocaf.[122] The largest coffee-roasting plant in the world, operated by Folgers, is located in New Orleans East.[123][124]

 
The steamboat Natchez operates out of New Orleans.

New Orleans is located near to the Gulf of Mexico and its many oil rigs. Louisiana ranks fifth among states in oil production and eighth in reserves. It has two of the four Strategic Petroleum Reserve (SPR) storage facilities: West Hackberry in Cameron Parish and Bayou Choctaw in Iberville Parish. The area hosts 17 petroleum refineries, with a combined crude oil distillation capacity of nearly 2.8 million barrels per day (450,000 m3/d), the second highest after Texas. Louisiana's numerous ports include the Louisiana Offshore Oil Port (LOOP), which is capable of receiving the largest oil tankers. Given the quantity of oil imports, Louisiana is home to many major pipelines: Crude Oil (Exxon, Chevron, BP, Texaco, Shell, Scurloch-Permian, Mid-Valley, Calumet, Conoco, Koch Industries, Unocal, U.S. Dept. of Energy, Locap); Product (TEPPCO Partners, Colonial, Plantation, Explorer, Texaco, Collins); and Liquefied Petroleum Gas (Dixie, TEPPCO, Black Lake, Koch, Chevron, Dynegy, Kinder Morgan Energy Partners, Dow Chemical Company, Bridgeline, FMP, Tejas, Texaco, UTP).[125] Several energy companies have regional headquarters in the area, including Royal Dutch Shell, Eni and Chevron. Other energy producers and oilfield services companies are headquartered in the city or region, and the sector supports a large professional services base of specialized engineering and design firms, as well as a term office for the federal government's Minerals Management Service.

Business

The city is the home to a single Fortune 500 company: Entergy, a power generation utility and nuclear power plant operations specialist.[126] After Katrina, the city lost its other Fortune 500 company, Freeport-McMoRan, when it merged its copper and gold exploration unit with an Arizona company and relocated that division to Phoenix. Its McMoRan Exploration affiliate remains headquartered in New Orleans.[127]

Companies with significant operations or headquarters in New Orleans include: Pan American Life Insurance, Pool Corp, Rolls-Royce, Newpark Resources, AT&T, TurboSquid, iSeatz, IBM, Navtech, Superior Energy Services, Textron Marine & Land Systems, McDermott International, Pellerin Milnor, Lockheed Martin, Imperial Trading, Laitram, Harrah's Entertainment, Stewart Enterprises, Edison Chouest Offshore, Zatarain's, Waldemar S. Nelson & Co., Whitney National Bank, Capital One, Tidewater Marine, Popeyes Chicken & Biscuits, Parsons Brinckerhoff, MWH Global, CH2M Hill, Energy Partners Ltd, The Receivables Exchange, GE Capital, and Smoothie King.

Tourist and convention business

Tourism is a staple of the city's economy. Perhaps more visible than any other sector, New Orleans' tourist and convention industry is a $5.5 billion industry that accounts for 40 percent of city tax revenues. In 2004, the hospitality industry employed 85,000 people, making it the city's top economic sector as measured by employment.[128] New Orleans also hosts the World Cultural Economic Forum (WCEF). The forum, held annually at the New Orleans Morial Convention Center, is directed toward promoting cultural and economic development opportunities through the strategic convening of cultural ambassadors and leaders from around the world. The first WCEF took place in October 2008.[129]

Federal and military agencies

 
Aerial view of NASA's Michoud Assembly Facility

Federal agencies and the Armed forces operate significant facilities there. The U.S. Fifth Circuit Court of Appeals operates at the US. Courthouse downtown. NASA's Michoud Assembly Facility is located in New Orleans East and has multiple tenants including Lockheed Martin and Boeing. It is a huge manufacturing complex that produced the external fuel tanks for the Space Shuttles, the Saturn V first stage, the Integrated Truss Structure of the International Space Station, and is now used for the construction of NASA's Space Launch System. The rocket factory lies within the enormous New Orleans Regional Business Park, also home to the National Finance Center, operated by the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), and the Crescent Crown distribution center. Other large governmental installations include the U.S. Navy's Space and Naval Warfare (SPAWAR) Systems Command, located within the University of New Orleans Research and Technology Park in Gentilly, Naval Air Station Joint Reserve Base New Orleans; and the headquarters for the Marine Force Reserves in Federal City in Algiers.

السكان

التعداد تاريخياً
الإحصاء التعداد %±
181017٬242
—
182027٬17657.6%
183046٬08269.6%
1840102٬193121.8%
1850116٬37513.9%
1860168٬67544.9%
1870191٬41813.5%
1880216٬09012.9%
1890242٬03912.0%
1900287٬10418.6%
1910339٬07518.1%
1920387٬21914.2%
1930458٬76218.5%
1940494٬5377.8%
1950570٬44515.3%
1960627٬52510.0%
1970593٬471-5.4%
1980557٬515-6.1%
1990496٬938-10.9%
2000484٬674-2.5%
تقديري 2007239٬124[130]-50.7%
Historical Population Figures[131]
 
لمدينة نيو أورلينز العديد من الأقاليم.
انظر أيضاً: نيو أورلينز العظمى


الديانة

 
Saint Louis Cathedral is a symbol of New Orleans.

اللهجة

الحكومة

الجريمة

يوجد معدل عالي لجرائم العنف في مدينة نيو أورلينز. ووصل معدل جرائم القتل إلى ذروته في عام 1994 ، حيث وصل لنسبة 86 من بين 100.000 مواطن.[132]

التعليم

المدارس

الجامعات والكليات

 
Gibson Hall on the campus of Tulane University, in the Uptown area of New Orleans.

المكتبات

الإعلام

البنية التحتية

النقل

 
A Saint Charles Avenue streetcar traveling Canal Street

العربات

المقالة الرئيسية: العربات في نيو أورلينز

الحافلات

الطرق

انظر أيضاً: أشهر شوارع نيو أورلينز

المطارات

خطوط السكك الحديدية

مدن شقيقة

نيو أورلينز لديها علاقات متبادلة مع:[133]

انظر أيضا

Notes

  1. ^ Mean monthly maxima and minima (i.e. the expected highest and lowest temperature readings at any point during the year or given month) calculated based on data at said location from 1991 to 2020.
  2. ^ Official records for New Orleans have been kept at MSY since May 1, 1946.[105] Additional records from Audubon Park dating back to 1893 have also been included.
  3. ^ Sunshine normals are based on only 20 to 22 years of data.


المراجع

  1. ^ "2016 U.S. Gazetteer Files". United States Census Bureau. Archived from the original on April 25, 2018. Retrieved July 2, 2017.
  2. ^ "U.S. Population Totals 2010–2020". United States Census Bureau. Archived from the original on August 29, 2021. Retrieved August 12, 2021.
  3. ^ "List of 2020 Census Urban Areas". census.gov. United States Census Bureau. Archived from the original on January 14, 2023. Retrieved July 22, 2023.
  4. ^ "Total Gross Domestic Product for New Orleans-Metairie, LA (MSA)". fred.stlouisfed.org. Archived from the original on January 4, 2024. Retrieved January 4, 2024.
  5. ^ "Gross Domestic Product by County and Metropolitan Area, 2022" (PDF). www.bea.gov. Bureau of Economic Analysis. Archived (PDF) from the original on December 13, 2023. Retrieved January 4, 2024.
  6. ^ New Orleans Archived مارس 6, 2018 at the Wayback Machine. Merriam-Webster.
  7. ^ Romer, Megan. "How to Say 'New Orleans' Correctly". About Travel. about.com. Archived from the original on October 16, 2015. Retrieved January 31, 2015.
  8. ^ "QuickFacts: New Orleans city, Louisiana". United States Census Bureau. August 10, 2021. Archived from the original on August 29, 2021. Retrieved August 12, 2021.
  9. ^ Henry Louis Mencken (1924). The American Language: An Inquiry Into the Development of English in the United States. A. A. Knopf. p. 412.
  10. ^ Institute of New Orleans History and Culture Archived ديسمبر 7, 2006 at the Wayback Machine at Gwynedd-Mercy College
  11. ^ "Hurricane on the Bayou – A MacGillivray Freeman Film". Hurricane on the Bayou. Archived from the original on January 15, 2016.
  12. ^ David Billings, "New Orleans: A Choice Between Destruction and Reparations", The Fellowship of Reconciliation, November/December 2005
  13. ^ Damian Dovarganes, Associated Press, "Spike Lee offers his take on Hurricane Katrina" Archived سبتمبر 17, 2022 at the Wayback Machine, MSNBC, July 14, 2006
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Further reading

  • Adams, Thomas J., and Steve Striffler (eds.). Working in the Big Easy: The History and Politics of Labor in New Orleans. Lafayette, Louisiana: University of Louisiana at Lafayette Press, 2014.
  • Berry, Jason. City of a Million Dreams: A History of New Orleans at Year 300. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 2018.
  • Dessens, Nathalie. Creole City: A Chronicle of Early American New Orleans. Gainesville, Florida: University Press of Florida, 2015.
  • Ermus, Cindy (ed.). Environmental Disaster in the Gulf South: Two Centuries of Catastrophe, Risk, and Resilience. Baton Rouge, LA: Louisiana State University Press, 2018.
  • Fertel, Rien. Imagining the Creole City: The Rise of Literary Culture in Nineteenth-Century New Orleans. Baton Rouge, Louisiana: Louisiana State University Press, 2014.
  • Gitlin, Jay (2009). The Bourgeois Frontier: French Towns, French Traders, and American Expansion. Yale University Press. p. 159. ISBN 978-0-300-15576-1.
  • Holli, Melvin G., and Jones, Peter d'A., eds. Biographical Dictionary of American Mayors, 1820-1980 (Greenwood Press, 1981) short scholarly biographies each of the city's mayors 1820 to 1980. online; see index at p. 409 for list.
  • Marler, Scott P. The Merchants' Capital: New Orleans and the Political Economy of the Nineteenth-Century South. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2013.
  • Powell, Lawrence N. The Accidental City: Improvising New Orleans. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2012.
  • Simmons, LaKisha Michelle. Crescent City Girls: The Lives of Young Black Women in Segregated New Orleans. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 2015.
  • Solnit, Rebecca, and Rebecca Snedeker, Unfathomable City: A New Orleans Atlas. Berkeley, California: University of California Press, 2013.

وصلات خارجية

قالب:Orleans Parish, Louisiana قالب:New Orleans metropolitan area قالب:Louisiana cities and mayors of 100,000 population

قالب:Louisiana parishes

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