مانشو (شعب)
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المانچو Manchu [note 1] (المانچو: ᠮᠠᠨᠵᡠ; Möllendorff: manju; الصينية المبسطة: 满族؛ الصينية التقليدية: 滿族؛ پن‌ين: Mǎnzú؛ ويد–جايلز: Man3-tsu2�)، هم أقلية عرقية صينية والشعب الذي اشتقت منهم مانچوريا اسمها.[11] يطلق عليهم أحياناً "المانچو ذوي الشرائط الحمر، في إشارة إلى الزينة الموضوعة على قبعات المانچو التقليدية.[12][13]
شعب المانچو هم الفرع الأكبر من الشعوب التونگستية وهم منتشرون في أنحاء الصين، مشكلين رابع أكبر جماعة عرقية في البلاد.[1] يتواجدون في مقاطعات الصين ال31. ويشكلون أيضاً أكبر أقلية عرقية في الصين بدون منطقة حكم ذاتي. من بينها لياونينگ التي لديها أكبر تعداد من المانچو، وخبي، هـِيْ‌لونگ‌جيانگ، جيلين، منغوليا الداخلية وبكين ويوجد بها أكثر من 100.000 مقيم من المانچو. يعيش ما يقارب من نصف المانچو في مقاطعة لياونينگ والخمس في مقاطعة خبي. هناك أعداد من المانچو في مقاطعات الحكم الذاتي في الصين، مثل شين‌بين، شيويوان، شينگ‌لونگ، فينگ‌نينگ، يتونگ، شينگ‌يوان، ويي‌چنگ، كوان‌چنگ، بن‌شي، كوان‌ديان، هوان‌رن، فنگ‌چنگ، باي‌ژن[note 2] وأكثر من 300 بلدة وبلدية مانچو.[15]
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الاسم
"Manchu" (المانچو: ᠮᠠᠨᠵᡠ; Möllendorff: manju) was adopted as the official name of the people by Emperor Hong Taiji in 1635, replacing the earlier name "Jurchen". It appears that manju was an old term for the Jianzhou Jurchens, although the etymology is not well understood.[16]
The Jiu Manzhou Dang, archives of early 17th century documents, contains the earliest use of Manchu.[17] However, the actual etymology of the ethnic name "Manju" is debatable.[18] According to the Qing dynasty's official historical record, the Researches on Manchu Origins, the ethnic name came from Mañjuśrī.[19] The Qianlong Emperor also supported the point of view and even wrote several poems on the subject.[20]
Meng Sen, a scholar of the Qing dynasty, agreed. On the other hand, he thought the name Manchu might stem from Li Manzhu (李滿住), the chieftain of the Jianzhou Jurchens.[20]
Another scholar, Chang Shan, thinks Manju is a compound word. Man was from the word mangga (ᠮᠠᠩᡤᠠ) which means "strong," and ju (ᠵᡠ) means "arrow." So Manju actually means "intrepid arrow".[21]
There are other hypotheses, such as Fu Sinian's "etymology of Jianzhou"; Zhang Binglin's "etymology of Manshi"; Isamura Sanjiro's "etymology of Wuji and Mohe"; Sun Wenliang's "etymology of Manzhe"; "etymology of mangu(n) river" and so on.[22][23][24]
An extensive etymological study from 2022 lends additional support to the view that manju is cognate with words referring to the lower Amur river in other Tungusic languages and can be reconstructed to Proto-Tungusic *mamgo 'lower Amur, large river'.[25]
التاريخ
الأصول والتاريخ المبكر
مقالات مفصلة: سوشن- موغير
- شعب الجورچن
The Manchus are descended from the Jurchen people who earlier established the Jin dynasty (1115–1234) in China.[26][27][28] The name Mohe might refer to an ancestral population of the Manchus. The Mohe practiced pig farming extensively and were mainly sedentary,[29] and also used both pig and dog skins for coats. They were predominantly farmers and grew soybeans, wheat, millet and rice, in addition to hunting.[29]
In the 10th century AD, the term Jurchen first appeared in documents of the late Tang dynasty in reference to the state of Balhae in present-day northeastern China. The Jurchens were sedentary,[30] settled farmers with advanced agriculture. They farmed grain and millet as their cereal crops, grew flax, and raised oxen, pigs, sheep and horses.[31] Their farming way of life was very different from the pastoral nomadism of the Mongols and the Khitans on the steppes.[32][33] Most Jurchens raised pigs and stock animals and were farmers.[34]
In 1019, Jurchen pirates raided Japan for slaves. The Jurchen pirates slaughtered Japanese men while seizing Japanese women as prisoners in northern Kyushu. Fujiwara Notada, the Japanese governor was killed.[35] In total, 1,280 Japanese were taken prisoner, 374 Japanese were killed and 380 Japanese-owned livestock were killed for food.[36][37] Only 259 or 270 were returned by Koreans from the 8 ships.[38][39][40][41] The woman Uchikura no Ishime's report was copied down[مطلوب توضيح].[42] Traumatic memories of the Jurchen raids on Japan in the 1019 Toi invasion, the Mongol invasions of Japan in addition to Japan viewing the Jurchens as "Tatar" "barbarians" after copying China's barbarian-civilized distinction, may have played a role in Japan's antagonistic views against Manchus and hostility towards them in later centuries such as when Tokugawa Ieyasu viewed the unification of Manchu tribes as a threat to Japan. The Japanese mistakenly thought that Hokkaido (Ezochi) had a land bridge to Tartary (Orankai) where Manchus lived and thought the Manchus could invade Japan. The Tokugawa Shogunate bakufu sent a message to Korea via Tsushima offering help to Korea against the 1627 Manchu invasion of Korea. Korea refused it.[43]
Following the fall of Balhae, the Jurchens became vassals of the Khitan-led Liao dynasty. The Jurchens in the Yalu River region were tributaries of Goryeo since the reign of Wang Geon, who called upon them during the wars of the Later Three Kingdoms period, but the Jurchens switched allegiance between Liao and Goryeo multiple times, taking advantage of the tension between the two nations; posing a potential threat to Goryeo's border security, the Jurchens offered tribute to the Goryeo court, expecting lavish gifts in return.[44] Before the Jurchens overthrew the Khitan, married Jurchen women and Jurchen girls were raped by Liao Khitan envoys as a custom which caused resentment.[45] Khitan envoys among the Jurchens were treated to guest prostitutes by their Jurchen hosts. Unmarried Jurchen girls and their families hosted the Liao envoys who had sex with the girls. Song envoys among the Jin were similarly entertained by singing girls in Guide, Henan.[46][47] The practice of guest prostitution – giving female companions, food and shelter to guests – was common among Jurchens. Unmarried daughters of Jurchen families of lower and middle classes in Jurchen villages were provided to Khitan messengers for sex as recorded by Hong Hao.[48] There is no evidence that guest prostitution of unmarried Jurchen girls to Khitans was resented by the Jurchens. It was only when the aristocratic Jurchen families were forced to give up their beautiful wives as guest prostitutes to Khitan messengers that the Jurchens became angered. This probably meant only a husband had the right to his married wife while among lower class Jurchens, the virginity of unmarried girls and sex did not impede their ability to marry later.[48] The Jurchens and their Manchu descendants had Khitan linguistic and grammatical elements in their personal names like suffixes.[49] Many Khitan names had a "ju" suffix.[50] In the year 1114, Wanyan Aguda united the Jurchen tribes and established the Jin dynasty (1115–1234).[51] His brother and successor, Wanyan Wuqimai defeated the Liao dynasty. After the fall of the Liao dynasty, the Jurchens went to war with the Northern Song dynasty, and captured most of northern China in the Jin–Song wars.[51] During the Jin dynasty, the first Jurchen script came into use in the 1120s. It was mainly derived from the Khitan script.[51] Poor Jurchen families in the southern Routes (Daming and Shandong) Battalion and Company households tried to live the lifestyle of wealthy Jurchen families and avoid doing farming work by selling their own Jurchen daughters into slavery and renting their land to Han tenants. The Wealthy Jurchens feasted and drank and wore damask and silk. The History of Jin (Jinshi) says that Emperor Shizong of Jin took note and in 1181 attempted to halt these practices.[34]
In 1206, the Mongols, vassals to the Jurchens, rose in Mongolia. Their leader, Genghis Khan, led Mongol troops against the Jurchens, who were finally defeated by Ögedei Khan in 1234.[52] The Jurchen Jin emperor Wanyan Yongji's daughter, Jurchen Princess Qiguo was married to Mongol leader Genghis Khan in exchange for relieving the Mongol siege upon Zhongdu (Beijing) in the Mongol conquest of the Jin dynasty.[53] The Yuan grouped people into different groups based on how recently their state surrendered to the Yuan. Subjects of southern Song were grouped as southerners (nan ren) and also called manzi. Subjects of the Jin dynasty, Western Xia and kingdom of Dali in Yunnan in southern China were classified as notherners, also using the term Han. However the use of the word Han as the name of a class category used by the Yuan dynasty was a different concept from Han ethnicity. They grouping of Jurchens in northern China grouped with northern Han into the northerner class did not mean they were regarded the same as ethnic Han people, who themselves were in two different classes in the Yuan, Han ren and Nan Ren as said by Stephen G. Haw. Also the Yuan directive to treat Jurchens the same as Mongols referred to Jurchens and Khitans in the northwest (not the Jurchen homeland in the northeast), presumably in the lands of Qara Khitai, where many Khitan live but it is a mystery as to how Jurchens were living there.[54] Many Jurchens adopted Mongolian customs, names, and the Mongolian language. As time went on, fewer and fewer Jurchens could recognize their own script. The Jurchen Yehe Nara clan is of paternal Mongol origin.
Many Jurchen families descended from the original Jin Jurchen migrants in Han areas like those using the surnames Wang and Nian 粘 have openly reclaimed their ethnicity and registered as Manchus. Wanyan (完顏) clan members who had changed their surnames to Wang (王) after the Mongol conquest of the Jin dynasty applied successfully to the PRC government for their ethnic group to be marked as Manchu despite never having been part of the Eight Banner system at all during the Qing dynasty. The surname Nianhan (粘罕), shortened to Nian (粘) is a Jurchen origin surname, also originating from one of the members of the royal Wanyan clan. It is an extremely rare surname in China, and 1,100 members of the Nian clan live in Nan'an, Quanzhou, they live in Licheng district of Quanzhou, 900 in Jinjiang ,Quanzhou, 40 in Shishi city of Quanzhou, and 500 in Quanzhou city itself in Fujian, and just over 100 people in Xiamen, Jin'an district of Fuzhou, Zhangpu and Sanming, as well as 1000 in Laiyang, Shandong, and 1,000 in Kongqiao and Wujiazhuang in Xingtai, Hebei. Some of the Nian from Quanzhou immigrated to Taiwan, Singapore and Malaysia. In Taiwan they are concentrated in Lukang township and Changhua city of Changhua county as well as in Dingnien village, Xianne village Fuxing township of Changhua county. Thre are less than 30,000 members of the Nian clan worldwide, with 9,916 of them in Taiwan, and 3,040 of those in Fuxing township of Changhua county and its most common in Dingnian village.
During the transition between the Ming and Qing Zhang Sunzhen, a civilian official in Nanjing himself remarked that he had a portrait of his ancestors wearing Manchu clothes because his family were Tartars so it was appropriate that he was going to shave his head into the Manchu hairstyle when the queue order was given.[55][56]
The Mongol-led Yuan dynasty was replaced by the Ming dynasty in 1368. In 1387, Ming forces defeated the Mongol commander Naghachu's resisting forces who settled in the Haixi area[16] and began to summon the Jurchen tribes to pay tribute.[20] At the time, some Jurchen clans were vassals to the Joseon dynasty of Korea such as Odoli and Huligai.[20] Their elites served in the Korean royal bodyguard.[16]
The Joseon Koreans tried to deal with the military threat posed by the Jurchen by using both forceful means and incentives, and by launching military attacks. At the same time they tried to appease them with titles and degrees, traded with them, and sought to acculturate them by having Jurchens integrate into Korean culture. Despite these measures, however, fighting continued between the Jurchen and the Koreans.[57][58] Their relationship was eventually stopped by the Ming dynasty government who wanted the Jurchens to protect the border. In 1403, Ahacu, chieftain of Huligai, paid tribute to the Yongle Emperor of the Ming dynasty. Soon after that, Möngke Temür[1], chieftain of the Odoli clan of the Jianzhou Jurchens, defected from paying tribute to Korea, becoming a tributary state to China instead. Yi Seong-gye, the Taejo of Joseon, asked the Ming Empire to send Möngke Temür back but was refused.[20] The Yongle Emperor was determined to wrest the Jurchens out of Korean influence and have China dominate them instead.[59][60] Korea tried to persuade Möngke Temür to reject the Ming overtures, but was unsuccessful, and Möngke Temür submitted to the Ming Empire.[61][59] Since then, more and more Jurchen tribes presented tribute to the Ming Empire in succession.[20] The Ming divided them into 384 guards,[16] and the Jurchen became vassals to the Ming Empire.[62] During the Ming dynasty, the name for the Jurchen land was Nurgan. The Jurchens became part of the Ming dynasty's Nurgan Regional Military Commission under the Yongle Emperor, with Ming forces erecting the Yongning Temple Stele in 1413, at the headquarters of Nurgan. The stele was inscribed in Chinese, Jurchen, Mongolian, and Tibetan. Yishiha, who was a Jurchen eunuch slave in the Ming imperial palace after he was captured and castrated as a boy by Ming Chinese forces, was the one who led the Ming expedition into Nurgan to erect the stele and established the Nurgan Regional Military Commission.
In 1449, Mongol taishi Esen attacked the Ming Empire and captured the Zhengtong Emperor in Tumu. Some Jurchen guards in Jianzhou and Haixi cooperated with Esen's action,[63] but more were attacked in the Mongol invasion. Many Jurchen chieftains lost their hereditary certificates granted by the Ming government.[20] They had to present tribute as secretariats (中書舍人) with less reward from the Ming court than in the time when they were heads of guards – an unpopular development.[20] Subsequently, more and more Jurchens recognised the Ming Empire's declining power due to Esen's invasion. The Zhengtong Emperor's capture directly caused Jurchen guards to go out of control.[20] Tribal leaders, such as Cungšan[2] and Wang Gao, brazenly plundered Ming territory. At about this time, the Jurchen script was officially abandoned.[64] More Jurchens adopted Mongolian as their writing language and fewer used Chinese.[65] The final recorded Jurchen writing dates to 1526.[66]
The Manchus are sometimes mistakenly identified as nomadic people.[67][68][69] The Manchu way of life (economy) was agricultural, farming crops and raising animals on farms.[70] Manchus practiced slash-and-burn agriculture in the areas north of Shenyang.[71] The Haixi Jurchens were "semi-agricultural, the Jianzhou Jurchens and Maolian (毛憐) Jurchens were sedentary, while hunting and fishing was the way of life of the "Wild Jurchens".[72] Han Chinese society resembled that of the sedentary Jianzhou and Maolian, who were farmers.[73] Hunting, archery on horseback, horsemanship, livestock raising, and sedentary agriculture were all part of the Jianzhou Jurchens' culture.[74] Although Manchus practiced equestrianism and archery on horseback, their immediate progenitors practiced sedentary agriculture.[75] The Manchus also partook in hunting but were sedentary.[76] Their primary mode of production was farming while they lived in villages, forts, and walled towns. Their Jurchen Jin predecessors also practiced farming.[77]
Only the Mongols and the northern "wild" Jurchen were semi-nomadic, unlike the mainstream Jiahnzhou Jurchens descended from the Jin dynasty who were farmers that foraged, hunted, herded and harvested crops in the Liao and Yalu river basins. They gathered ginseng root, pine nuts, hunted for came pels in the uplands and forests, raised horses in their stables, and farmed millet and wheat in their fallow fields. They engaged in dances, wrestling and drinking strong liquor as noted during midwinter by the Korean Sin Chung-il when it was very cold. These Jurchens who lived in the north-east's harsh cold climate sometimes half sunk their houses in the ground which they constructed of brick or timber and surrounded their fortified villages with stone foundations on which they built wattle and mud walls to defend against attack. Village clusters were ruled by beile, hereditary leaders. They fought each other's and dispensed weapons, wives, slaves and lands to their followers in them. This was how the Jurchens who founded the Qing lived and how their ancestors lived before the Jin. Alongside Mongols and Jurchen clans there were migrants from Liaodong provinces of Ming China and Korea living among these Jurchens in a cosmopolitan manner. Nurhaci who was hosting Sin Chung-il was uniting all of them into his own army, having them adopt the Jurchen hairstyle of a long queue and a shaved fore=crown and wearing leather tunics. His armies had black, blue, red, white and yellow flags. These became the Eight Banners, initially capped to 4 then growing to 8 with three different types of ethnic banners as Han, Mongol and Jurchen were recruited into Nurhaci's forces. Jurchens like Nurhaci spoke both their native Tungusic language and Chinese, adopting the Mongol script for their own language unlike the Jin Jurchen's Khitan derived script. They adopted Confucian values and practiced their shamanist traditions.[78]
The Qing stationed the "New Manchu" Warka foragers in Ningguta and attempted to turn them into normal agricultural farmers but then the Warka just reverted to hunter gathering and requested money to buy cattle for beef broth. The Qing wanted the Warka to become soldier-farmers and imposed this on them but the Warka simply left their garrison at Ningguta and went back to the Sungari river to their homes to herd, fish and hunt. The Qing accused them of desertion.[79]
魏焕《皇明九邊考》卷二《遼東鎮邊夷考》[80] Translation from Sino-Jürčed relations during the Yung-Lo period, 1403–1424 by Henry Serruys[81]
Although their Mohe ancestors did not respect dogs, the Jurchens began to respect dogs around the time of the Ming dynasty, and passed this tradition on to the Manchus. It was prohibited in Jurchen culture to use dog skin, and forbidden for Jurchens to harm, kill, or eat dogs. For political reasons, the Jurchen leader Nurhaci chose variously to emphasize either differences or similarities in lifestyles with other peoples like the Mongols.[82] Nurhaci said to the Mongols that "the languages of the Chinese and Koreans are different, but their clothing and way of life is the same. It is the same with us Manchus (Jušen) and Mongols. Our languages are different, but our clothing and way of life is the same." Later Nurhaci indicated that the bond with the Mongols was not based in any real shared culture. It was for pragmatic reasons of "mutual opportunism," since Nurhaci said to the Mongols: "You Mongols raise livestock, eat meat, and wear pelts. My people till the fields and live on grain. We two are not one country and we have different languages."[16]
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حكم المانچو للصين
A century after the chaos started in the Jurchen lands, Nurhaci, a chieftain of the Jianzhou Left Guard, began a campaign against the Ming Empire in revenge for their manslaughter of his grandfather and father in 1583.[بحاجة لمصدر] He reunified the Jurchen tribes, established a military system called the "Eight Banners", which organized Jurchen soldiers into groups of "Bannermen", and ordered his scholar Erdeni and minister Gagai to create a new Jurchen script (later known as Manchu script) using the traditional Mongolian alphabet as a reference.[83]
When the Jurchens were reorganized by Nurhaci into the Eight Banners, many Manchu clans were artificially created as a group of unrelated people founded a new Manchu clan (mukun) using a geographic origin name such as a toponym for their hala (clan name).[84] The irregularities over Jurchen and Manchu clan origin led to the Qing trying to document and systematize the creation of histories for Manchu clans, including manufacturing an entire legend around the origin of the Aisin-Gioro clan by taking mythology from the northeast.[85]
In 1603, Nurhaci gained recognition as the Sure Kundulen Khan (المانچو: ᠰᡠᡵᡝ
ᡴᡠᠨᡩᡠᠯᡝᠨ
ᡥᠠᠨ; Möllendorff: sure kundulen han; Abkai: sure kundulen han, "wise and respected khan") from his Khalkha Mongol allies;[86] then, in 1616, he publicly enthroned himself and issued a proclamation naming himself Genggiyen Khan (المانچو: ᡤᡝᠩᡤᡳᠶᡝᠨ
ᡥᠠᠨ; Möllendorff: genggiyen han; Abkai: genggiyen han, "bright khan") of the Later Jin dynasty (المانچو: ᠠᡳᠰᡳᠨ
ᡤᡠᡵᡠᠨ; Möllendorff: aisin gurun; Abkai: aisin gurun, 後金).[3] Nurhaci then launched his attack on the Ming dynasty[86] and moved the capital to Mukden after his conquest of Liaodong.[83] In 1635, his son and successor Huangtaiji changed the name of the Jurchen ethnic group (المانچو: ᠵᡠᡧᡝᠨ; Möllendorff: jušen; Abkai: juxen) to the Manchu.[87] A year later, Huangtaiji proclaimed himself the emperor of the Qing dynasty (المانچو: ᡩᠠᡳᠴᡳᠩ
ᡤᡠᡵᡠᠨ; Möllendorff: daicing gurun; Abkai: daiqing gurun[4]).[88] Factors for the change of name of these people from Jurchen to Manchu include the fact that the term "Jurchen" had negative connotations since the Jurchens had been in a servile position to the Ming dynasty for several hundred years, and it also referred to people of the "dependent class".[86][89]
In 1644, the Ming capital, Beijing, was sacked by a peasant revolt led by Li Zicheng, a former minor Ming official who became the leader of the peasant revolt, who then proclaimed the establishment of the Shun dynasty. The last Ming ruler, the Chongzhen Emperor, died by suicide by hanging himself when the city fell. When Li Zicheng moved against the Ming general Wu Sangui, the latter made an alliance with the Manchus and opened the Shanhai Pass to the Manchu army. After the Manchus defeated Li Zicheng, they moved the capital of their new Qing Empire to Beijing (المانچو: ᠪᡝᡤᡳᠩ; Möllendorff: beging; Abkai: beging[90]) in the same year.[88]
The Qing government differentiated between Han Bannermen and ordinary Han civilians. Han Bannermen were Han Chinese who defected to the Qing Empire up to 1644 and joined the Eight Banners, giving them social and legal privileges in addition to being acculturated to Manchu culture. So many Han defected to the Qing Empire and swelled up the ranks of the Eight Banners that ethnic Manchus became a minority within the Banners, making up only 16% in 1648, with Han Bannermen dominating at 75% and Mongol Bannermen making up the rest.[91][92][93] It was this multi-ethnic, majority Han force in which Manchus were a minority, which conquered China for the Qing Empire.[94]
A mass marriage of Han Chinese officers and officials to Manchu women was organized to balance the massive number of Han women who entered the Manchu court as courtesans, concubines, and wives. These couples were arranged by Prince Yoto and Hong Taiji in 1632 to promote harmony between the two ethnic groups.[95] Also to promote ethnic harmony, a 1648 decree from the Shunzhi Emperor allowed Han Chinese civilian men to marry Manchu women from the Banners with the permission of the Board of Revenue if they were registered daughters of officials or commoners or the permission of their banner company captain if they were unregistered commoners. It was only later in the dynasty that these policies allowing intermarriage were done away with.[96][95]
The change of the name from Jurchen to Manchu was made to hide the fact that the ancestors of the Manchus, the Jianzhou Jurchens, had been ruled by the Chinese.[97][98][99][28] The Qing dynasty carefully hid the two original editions of the books of "Qing Taizu Wu Huangdi Shilu" and the "Manzhou Shilu Tu" (Taizu Shilu Tu) in the Qing palace, forbidden from public view because they showed that the Manchu Aisin-Gioro family had been ruled by the Ming dynasty.[100][101] In the Ming period, the Koreans of Joseon referred to the Jurchen inhabited lands north of the Korean peninsula, above the rivers Yalu and Tumen to be part of Ming China, as the "superior country" (sangguk) which they called Ming China.[102] The Qing deliberately excluded references and information that showed the Jurchens (Manchus) as subservient to the Ming dynasty, from the History of Ming to hide their former subservient relationship to the Ming. The Veritable Records of Ming were not used to source content on Jurchens during Ming rule in the History of Ming because of this.[103]
As a result of their conquest of China, almost all the Manchus followed the prince regent Dorgon and the Shunzhi Emperor to Beijing and settled there.[104][105] A few of them were sent to other places such as Inner Mongolia, Xinjiang and Tibet to serve as garrison troops.[105] There were only 1524 Bannermen left in Manchuria at the time of the initial Manchu conquest.[104] After a series of border conflicts with the Russians, the Qing emperors started to realize the strategic importance of Manchuria and gradually sent Manchus back where they originally came from.[104] But throughout the Qing dynasty, Beijing was the focal point of the ruling Manchus in the political, economic and cultural spheres. The Yongzheng Emperor noted: "Garrisons are the places of stationed works, Beijing is their homeland."[106]
While the Manchu ruling elite at the Qing imperial court in Beijing and posts of authority throughout China increasingly adopted Han culture, the Qing imperial government viewed the Manchu communities (as well as those of various tribal people) in Manchuria as a place where traditional Manchu virtues could be preserved, and as a vital reservoir of military manpower fully dedicated to the regime.[107] The Qing emperors tried to protect the traditional way of life of the Manchus (as well as various other tribal peoples) in central and northern Manchuria by a variety of means. In particular, they restricted the migration of Han settlers to the region. This had to be balanced with practical needs, such as maintaining the defense of northern China against the Russians and the Mongols, supplying government farms with a skilled work force, and conducting trade in the region's products, which resulted in a continuous trickle of Han convicts, workers, and merchants to the northeast.[107]
Han Chinese transfrontiersmen and other non-Jurchen origin people who joined the Later Jin very early were put into the Manchu Banners and were known as "Baisin" in Manchu, and not put into the Han Banners to which later Han Chinese were placed in.[108][109] An example was the Tokoro Manchu clan in the Manchu banners which claimed to be descended from a Han Chinese with the surname of Tao who had moved north from Zhejiang to Liaodong and joined the Jurchens before the Qing in the Ming Wanli emperor's era.[108][109][110][111] The Han Chinese Banner Tong 佟 clan of Fushun in Liaoning falsely claimed to be related to the Jurchen Manchu Tunggiya 佟佳 clan of Jilin, using this false claim to get themselves transferred to a Manchu banner in the reign of the Kangxi emperor.[112]
Select groups of Han Chinese bannermen were mass transferred into Manchu Banners by the Qing, changing their ethnicity from Han Chinese to Manchu. Han Chinese bannermen of Tai Nikan 台尼堪 (watchpost Chinese) and Fusi Nikan 撫順尼堪 (Fushun Chinese)[86] backgrounds into the Manchu banners in 1740 by order of the Qing Qianlong emperor.[109] It was between 1618 and 1629 when the Han Chinese from Liaodong who later became the Fushun Nikan and Tai Nikan defected to the Jurchens (Manchus).[109] These Han Chinese origin Manchu clans continue to use their original Han surnames and are marked as of Han origin on Qing lists of Manchu clans.[113][114][115][116] The Fushun Nikan became Manchufied and the originally Han banner families of Wang Shixuan, Cai Yurong, Zu Dashou, Li Yongfang, Shi Tingzhu and Shang Kexi intermarried extensively with Manchu families.[117]
Manchu families adopted Han Chinese sons from families of bondservant Booi Aha (baoyi) origin and they served in Manchu company registers as detached household Manchus and the Qing imperial court found this out in 1729. Manchu Bannermen who needed money helped falsify registration for Han Chinese servants being adopted into the Manchu banners and Manchu families who lacked sons were allowed to adopt their servant's sons or servants themselves.[86] The Manchu families were paid to adopt Han Chinese sons from bondservant families by those families. The Qing Imperial Guard captain Batu was furious at the Manchus who adopted Han Chinese as their sons from slave and bondservant families in exchange for money and expressed his displeasure at them adopting Han Chinese instead of other Manchus.[86] These Han Chinese who infiltrated the Manchu Banners by adoption were known as "secondary-status bannermen" and "false Manchus" or "separate-register Manchus", and there were eventually so many of these Han Chinese that they took over military positions in the Banners which should have been reserved for Manchus. Han Chinese foster-son and separate register bannermen made up 800 out of 1,600 soldiers of the Mongol Banners and Manchu Banners of Hangzhou in 1740 which was nearly 50%. Han Chinese foster-son made up 220 out of 1,600 unsalaried troops at Jingzhou in 1747 and an assortment of Han Chinese separate-register, Mongol, and Manchu bannermen were the remainder. Han Chinese secondary status bannermen made up 180 of 3,600 troop households in Ningxia while Han Chinese separate registers made up 380 out of 2,700 Manchu soldiers in Liangzhou. The result of these Han Chinese fake Manchus taking up military positions resulted in many legitimate Manchus being deprived of their rightful positions as soldiers in the Banner armies, resulting in the real Manchus unable to receive their salaries as Han Chinese infiltrators in the banners stole their social and economic status and rights. These Han Chinese infiltrators were said to be good military troops and their skills at marching and archery were up to par so that the Zhapu lieutenant general couldn't differentiate them from true Manchus in terms of military skills.[86] Manchu Banners contained a lot of "false Manchus" who were from Han Chinese civilian families but were adopted by Manchu bannermen after the Yongzheng reign. The Jingkou and Jiangning Mongol banners and Manchu Banners had 1,795 adopted Han Chinese and the Beijing Mongol Banners and Manchu Banners had 2,400 adopted Han Chinese in statistics taken from the 1821 census. Despite Qing attempts to differentiate adopted Han Chinese from normal Manchu bannermen the differences between them became hazy.[95] These adopted Han Chinese bondservants who managed to get themselves onto Manchu banner roles were called kaihu ren (開戶人) in Chinese and dangse faksalaha urse in Manchu. Normal Manchus were called jingkini Manjusa.
A Manchu Bannerman in Guangzhou called Hequan illegally adopted a Han Chinese named Zhao Tinglu, the son of former Han bannerman Zhao Quan, and gave him a new name, Quanheng in order that he be able to benefit from his adopted son receiving a salary as a Banner soldier.[118]
Commoner Manchu bannermen who were not nobility were called irgen which meant common, in contrast to the Manchu nobility of the "Eight Great Houses" who held noble titles.[85][119]
This policy of artificially isolating the Manchus of the northeast from the rest of China could not last forever. In the 1850s, large numbers of Manchu bannermen were sent to central China to fight the Taiping rebels. (For example, just the Heilongjiang province – which at the time included only the northern part of today's Heilongjiang – contributed 67,730 bannermen to the campaign, of whom only 10–20% survived).[107]Those few who returned were demoralized and often disposed to opium addiction.[107] In 1860, in the aftermath of the loss of Russian Manchuria, and with the imperial and provincial governments in deep financial trouble, parts of Manchuria became officially open to Chinese settlement;[107] within a few decades, the Manchus became a minority in most of Manchuria's districts.
Manchu bannermen of the capital garrison in Beijing were said to be the worst militarily, unable to draw bows, unable to ride horses and fight properly and losing their Manchu culture.[120]
Manchu bannermen from the Xi'an banner garrison were praised for maintaining Manchu culture by Kangxi in 1703.[121] Xi'an garrison Manchus were said to retain Manchu culture far better than all other Manchus at martial skills in the provincial garrisons and they were able to draw their bows properly and perform cavalry archery unlike Beijing Manchus. The Qianlong emperor received a memorial staying Xi'an Manchu bannermen still had martial skills although not up to those in the past in a 1737 memorial from Cimbu.[122] By the 1780s, the military skills of Xi'an Manchu bannermen dropped enormously and they had been regarded as the most militarily skilled provincial Manchu banner garrison.[123] Manchu women from the Xi'an garrison often left the walled Manchu garrison and went to hot springs outside the city and gained bad reputations for their sexual lives. A Manchu from Beijing, Sumurji, was shocked and disgusted by this after being appointed Lieutenant general of the Manchu garrison of Xi'an and informed the Yongzheng emperor what they were doing.[124][125] Han civilians and Manchu bannermen in Xi'an had bad relations, with the bannermen trying to steal at the markets. Manchu Lieutenant general Cimbru reported this to Yongzheng emperor in 1729 after he was assigned there. Governor Yue Rui of Shandong was then ordered by the Yongzheng to report any bannerman misbehaving and warned him not to cover it up in 1730 after Manchu bannermen were put in a quarter in Qingzhou.[126] Manchu bannermen from the garrisons in Xi'an and Jingzhou fought in Xinjiang in the 1770s and Manchus from Xi'an garrison fought in other campaigns against the Dzungars and Uyghurs throughout the 1690s and 18th century. In the 1720s Jingzhou, Hangzhou and Nanjing Manchu banner garrisons fought in Tibet.[127]
For the over 200 years they lived next to each other, Han civilians and Manchu bannermen in Xi'an did not intermarry with each other at all.[128] In a book published in 1911 American sociologist Edward Alsworth Ross wrote of his visit to Xi'an just before the Xinhai revolution:"In Sianfu the Tartar quarter is a dismal picture of crumbling walls, decay, indolence and squalor. On the big drill grounds you see the runways along which the horseman gallops and shoots arrows at a target while the Tartar military mandarins look on. These lazy bannermen were tried in the new army but proved flabby and good-for-nothing; they would break down on an ordinary twenty-mile march. Battening on their hereditary pensions they have given themselves up to sloth and vice, and their poor chest development, small weak muscles, and diminishing families foreshadow the early dying out of the stock. Where is there a better illustration of the truth that parasitism leads to degeneration!"[129] Ross spoke highly of the Han and Hui population of Xi'an, Shaanxi and Gansu in general, saying: "After a fortnight of mule litter we sight ancient yellow Sianfu, "the Western capital," with its third of a million souls. Within the fortified triple gate the facial mold abruptly changes and the refined intellectual type appears. Here and there faces of a Hellenic purity of feature are seen and beautiful children are not uncommon. These Chinese cities make one realize how the cream of the population gathers in the urban centers. Everywhere town opportunities have been a magnet for the élite of the open country."[130]
The Qing dynasty altered its law on intermarriage between Han civilians and Manchu bannermen several times in the dynasty. At the beginning of the Qing dynasty, the Qing allowed Han civilians to marry Manchu women. Then the Qing banned civilians from marrying women from the Eight banners later. In 1865, the Qing allowed Han civilian men to marry Manchu bannerwomen in all garrisons except the capital garrison of Beijing. There was no formal law on marriage between people in the different banners like the Manchu and Han banners but it was informally regulated by social status and custom. In northeastern China such as Heilongjiang and Liaoning it was more common for Manchu women to marry Han men since they were not subjected to the same laws and institutional oversight as Manchus and Han in Beijing and elsewhere.[131]
Dulimbai Gurun ᡩᡠᠯᡳᠮᠪᠠᡳ
ᡤᡠᡵᡠᠨ is the Manchu name for China (中國؛ Zhōngguó؛ 'Middle Kingdom'�).[132] After conquering the Ming dynasty, the Qing rulers typically referred to their state as the "Great Qing" (大清�), or Daicing gurun in Manchu. In some documents, the state, or parts of it, is called "China" (Zhongguo), or "Dulimbai Gurun" in the Manchu tongue. Debate continues over whether the Qing equated the lands of the Qing state, including present-day Manchuria, Xinjiang, Mongolia, Tibet and other areas, with "China" in both the Chinese and Manchu languages. Some scholars claim that the Qing rulers defined China as a multiethnic state, rejecting the idea that China only meant Han areas, proclaiming that both Han and non-Han peoples were part of "China", using "China" to refer to the Qing dynasty's empire in official documents, international treaties, and foreign affairs, and the term "Chinese people" (中國人؛ Zhōngguó Rén�; Manchu: ᡩᡠᠯᡳᠮᠪᠠᡳ
ᡤᡠᡵᡠᠨ ᡳ
ᠨᡳᠶᠠᠯᠮᠠ Dulimbai gurun-i niyalma) referred to all the Han, Manchu, and Mongol subjects of the Qing Empire.[133]
When the Qing Empire conquered Dzungaria in 1759, it proclaimed that the new land was absorbed into "China" (Dulimbai Gurun) in a Manchu-language memorial.[134] The Qing government expounded in its ideology that it was bringing the "outer" non-Han Chinese like the Inner Mongols, Eastern Mongols, Oirat Mongols, and Tibetans together with the "inner" Han Chinese into "one family" united in the Qing state. The Qing government used the phrase "Zhongwai yijia" 中外一家 or "neiwai yijia" 內外一家 ("interior and exterior as one family") to convey this idea of unification of the different peoples of their empire.[134] A Manchu-language version of a treaty with the Russian Empire concerning criminal jurisdiction over bandits called people from the Qing Empire as "people of the Central Kingdom (Dulimbai Gurun)".[135] In the Manchu official Tulisen's Manchu language account of his meeting with the Torghut leader Ayuka Khan, it was mentioned that while the Torghuts were unlike the Russians, the "people of the Central Kingdom" (dulimba-i gurun 中國, Zhongguo) were like the Torghuts; "people of the Central Kingdom" meant Manchus.[82]
It was possible for Han Bannermen and Han bondservants (booi) to become Manchu by being transferred into the upper three Manchu Banners and having their surname "Manchufied" with the addition of a "giya" (佳�) as a suffix. The process was called taiqi (擡旗؛ 'raising of the banner'�) in Chinese. It typically occurred in cases of intermarriage with the Aisin-Gioro clan (the imperial clan); close relatives (fathers and brothers) of the concubine or Empress would get promoted from the Han Banner to the Manchu Banner and become Manchu.
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العصر الحديث
The majority of the hundreds of thousands of people living in inner Beijing during the Qing were Manchus and Mongol bannermen from the Eight Banners after they were moved there in 1644, since Han Chinese were expelled and not allowed to re-enter the inner part of the city.[136][137][138] Only after the "Hundred Days Reform", during the reign of emperor Guangxu, were Han were allowed to re-enter inner Beijing.[138]
Many Manchu Bannermen in Beijing supported the Boxers in the Boxer Rebellion and shared their anti-foreign sentiment.[85] The Manchu Bannermen were devastated by the fighting during the First Sino-Japanese War and the Boxer Rebellion, sustaining massive casualties during the wars and subsequently being driven into extreme suffering and hardship.[139] Much of the fighting in the Boxer Rebellion against the foreigners in defense of Beijing and Manchuria was done by Manchu Banner armies, which were destroyed while resisting the invasion. The German Minister Clemens von Ketteler was assassinated by a Manchu.[140] Thousands of Manchus fled south from Aigun during the fighting in the Boxer Rebellion in 1900, their cattle and horses then stolen by Russian Cossacks who razed their villages and homes.[141] The clan system of the Manchus in Aigun was obliterated by the despoliation of the area at the hands of the Russian invaders.[142]
Manchu banner garrisons were annihilated on 5 roads by Russians as they suffered most of the casualties. Manchu Shoufu killed himself during the battle of Peking and the Manchu Lao She's father was killed by western soldiers in the battle as the Manchu banner armies of the Center Division of the Guards Army, Tiger Spirit Division and Peking Field Force in the Metropolitan banners were slaughtered by the western soldiers. Baron von Ketteler, the German diplomat was murdered by Captain Enhai, a Manchu from the Tiger Spirit Division of Aisin Gioro Zaiyi, Prince Duan and the Inner city Legation Quarters and Catholic cathedral (Church of the Saviour, Beijing) were both attacked by Manchu bannermen. Manchu bannermen were slaughtered by the Eight Nation Alliance all over Manchuria and Beijing because most of the Manchu bannermen supported the Boxers in the Boxer rebellion.[143] There were 1,266 households including 900 Daurs and 4,500 Manchus in Sixty-Four Villages East of the River and Blagoveshchensk until the Blagoveshchensk massacre and Sixty-Four Villages East of the River massacre committed by Russian Cossack soldiers.[144] Many Manchu villages were burned by Cossacks in the massacre according to Victor Zatsepine.[145] Western and Japanese soldiers mass raped Manchu women and Mongol banner women in the Tartar Banner inner city of Beijing in siheyuan hutongs in the city. Sawara Tokusuke, a Japanese journalist wrote in "Miscellaneous Notes about the Boxers,"[146] about the rapes of Manchu and Mongol banner girls like when Manchu bannerman Yulu 裕禄 of the Hitara clan was killed in Yangcun and his seven daughters gang raped in the Heavenly palace.[146] A daughter and wife of Mongol banner noble Chongqi 崇绮 of the Alute clan were gang raped.[146] Multiple relatives including his son Baochu killed themselves after he killed himself on 26 August 1900. (Fang 75).[147]
Manchu royals, officials and officers like Yuxian, Qixiu 啟秀, Zaixun, Prince Zhuang and Captain Enhai (En Hai) were executed or forced to commit suicide by the Eight Nation Alliance. Manchu official Gangyi's 剛毅 execution was demanded but he already died.[148] Japanese soldiers arrested Qixiu before he was executed.[149] Zaixun, Prince Zhuang was forced to commit suicide on 21 February 1901.[150][151] They executed Yuxian on 22 February 1901.[152][153] On 31 December 1900 German soldiers beheaded the Manchu captain Enhai for killing Clemens von Ketteler.[154] Posthumous dishonour was conferred upon Gangyi.[143]
By the 19th century, most Manchus in the city garrison spoke only Mandarin Chinese, not Manchu, which still distinguished them from their Han neighbors in southern China, who spoke non-Mandarin dialects. That they spoke Beijing dialect made recognizing Manchus folks relatively easy.[139][140] It was northern Standard Chinese which the Manchu Bannermen spoke instead of the local dialect the Han people around the garrison spoke, so that Manchus in the garrisons at Jingzhou and Guangzhou both spoke Beijing Mandarin even though Cantonese was spoken at Guangzhou, and the Beijing dialect of Mandarin distinguished the Manchu bannermen at the Xi'an garrison from the local Han people who spoke the Xi'an dialect of Mandarin.[139][140] Many Bannermen got jobs as teachers, writing textbooks for learning Mandarin and instructing people in Mandarin.[155] In Guangdong, the Manchu Mandarin teacher Sun Yizun advised that the Yinyun Chanwei and Kangxi Zidian, dictionaries issued by the Qing government, were the correct guides to Mandarin pronunciation, rather than the pronunciation of the Beijing and Nanjing dialects.[155]
In the late 19th century and early 1900s, intermarriage between Manchus and Han bannermen in the northeast increased as Manchu families were more willing to marry their daughters to sons from well off Han families to trade their ethnic status for higher financial status.[156]
The Han Chinese Li Guojie, the grandson of Li Hongzhang, married the Manchu daughter of Natong (那桐), the Grand Secretary (大學士).[140] Most intermarriage consisted of Han Bannermen marrying Manchus in areas like Aihun.[139] Han Chinese Bannermen wedded Manchus and there was no law against this.[157] Two of the Han Chinese General Yuan Shikai's sons married Manchu women, his sons Yuan Kequan 克權 marrying one of Manchu official Duanfang's daughters and Yuan Kexiang 克相 marrying one of Manchu official Natong's daughters, and one his daughters married a Manchu man, Yuan Fuzhen 複禎 marrying one of Manchu official Yinchang's sons.[158]
Manchus in Heilongjiang were so confused about their culture by the end of the Qing dynasty they thought that the Manchu shaved head and pigtail hairstyle was Han and that Han Confucianism was Manchu ideology, and when the revolution in 1911 came they abandoned what they thought was the Han hairstyle.[159][160]
As the end of the Qing dynasty approached, Manchus were portrayed as outside colonizers by Chinese nationalists such as Sun Yat-sen, even though the Republican revolution he brought about was supported by many reform-minded Manchu officials and military officers.[140] This portrayal dissipated somewhat after the 1911 revolution as the new Republic of China now sought to include Manchus within its national identity.[140] In order to blend in, some Manchus switched to speaking the local dialect instead of Standard Chinese.[139][140]
.svg)
By the early years of the Republic of China, very few areas of China still had traditional Manchu populations. Among the few regions where such comparatively traditional communities could be found, and where the Manchu language was still widely spoken, were the Aigun (المانچو: ᠠᡳᡥᡡᠨ; Möllendorff: aihūn; Abkai: aihvn) District and the Qiqihar (المانچو: ᠴᡳᠴᡳᡤᠠᡵ; Möllendorff: cicigar; Abkai: qiqigar) District of Heilongjiang Province.[141]
Until 1924, the Chinese government continued to pay stipends to Manchu bannermen, but many cut their links with their banners and took on Han-style names to avoid persecution.[140] The official total of Manchus fell by more than half during this period, as they refused to admit their ethnicity when asked by government officials or other outsiders.[140] On the other hand, in warlord Zhang Zuolin's reign in Manchuria, much better treatment was reported.[161][63] There was no particular persecution of Manchus.[161] Even the mausoleums of Qing emperors were still allowed to be managed by Manchu guardsmen, as in the past.[161] Many Manchus joined the Fengtian clique, such as Xi Qia, a member of the Qing dynasty's imperial clan.
As a follow-up to the Mukden Incident, Manchukuo, a puppet state in Manchuria, was created by the Empire of Japan which was nominally ruled by the deposed Last Emperor, Puyi, in 1932. Although the nation's name implied a primarily Manchu affiliation, it was actually a completely new country for all the ethnicities in Manchuria,[162][161] which had a majority Han population and was opposed by many Manchus as well as people of other ethnicities who fought against Japan in the Second Sino-Japanese War.[63] The Japanese Ueda Kyōsuke labeled all 30 million people in Manchuria "Manchus", including Han Chinese, even though most of them were not ethnic Manchu, and the Japanese-written "Great Manchukuo" built upon Ueda's argument to claim that all 30 million "Manchus" in Manchukuo had the right to independence to justify splitting Manchukuo from China.[163] In 1942, the Japanese-written "Ten Year History of the Construction of Manchukuo" attempted to emphasize the right of ethnic Japanese to the land of Manchukuo while attempting to delegitimize the Manchus' claim to Manchukuo as their native land, noting that most Manchus moved out during the Qing dynasty and only returned later.[163]
In 1952, after the failure of both Manchukuo and the Nationalist Government (KMT), the newborn People's Republic of China officially recognized the Manchu as one of the ethnic minorities as Mao Zedong had criticized the Han chauvinism that dominated the KMT.[140] In the 1953 census, 2.5 million people identified themselves as Manchu.[140] The Communist government also attempted to improve the treatment of Manchu people; some Manchu people who had hidden their ancestry during the period of KMT rule became willing to reveal their ancestry, such as the writer Lao She, who began to include Manchu characters in his fictional works in the 1950s.[140] Between 1982 and 1990, the official count of Manchu people more than doubled from 4,299,159 to 9,821,180, making them China's fastest-growing ethnic minority,[140] but this growth was only on paper, as this was due to people formerly registered as Han applying for official recognition as Manchu.[140] Since the 1980s, thirteen Manchu autonomous counties have been created in Liaoning, Jilin, Hebei, and Heilongjiang.[164]
The Eight Banners system is one of the most important ethnic identity of today's Manchu people.[86] So nowadays, Manchus are more like an ethnic coalition which not only contains the descendants of Manchu bannermen, also has a large number of Manchu-assimilated Chinese and Mongol bannermen.[165][166][167][161] However, Solon and Sibe Bannermen who were considered as part of Eight Banner system under the Qing dynasty were registered as independent ethnic groups by the PRC government as Daur, Evenk, Nanai, Oroqen, and Sibe.[140]
Since the 1980s, the reform after Cultural Revolution, there has been a renaissance of Manchu culture and language among the government, scholars and social activities with remarkable achievements.[63] It was also reported that the resurgence of interest also spread among Han Chinese.[168] In modern China, Manchu culture and language preservation is promoted by the Chinese Communist Party, and Manchus once again form one of the most socioeconomically advanced minorities within China.[169] Manchus generally face little to no discrimination in their daily lives, there is however, a remaining anti-Manchu sentiment amongst Han nationalists conspiracy theorists. It is particularly common with participants of the Hanfu movement who subscribe to conspiracy theories about Manchu people, such as the Chinese Communist Party being occupied by Manchu elites hence the better treatment Manchus receive under the People's Republic of China in contrast to their persecution under the KMT's Republic of China rule.[170]
السكان
البر الصيني
Most Manchu people now live in Mainland China with a population of 10,410,585,[171] which is 9.28% of ethnic minorities and 0.77% of China's total population.[171] Among the provincial regions, there are two provinces, Liaoning and Hebei, which have over 1,000,000 Manchu residents.[171] Liaoning has 5,336,895 Manchu residents which is 51.26% of Manchu population and 12.20% provincial population; Hebei has 2,118,711 which is 20.35% of Manchu people and 70.80% of provincial ethnic minorites.[171] Manchus are the largest ethnic minority in Liaoning, Hebei, Heilongjiang and Beijing; 2nd largest in Jilin, Inner Mongolia, Tianjin, Ningxia, Shaanxi and Shanxi and 3rd largest in Henan, Shandong and Anhui.[171]
التوزيع
| الترتيب | المنطقة | إجمالي السكان |
المانچو | النسبة المئوية السكان المانچو |
النسبة المئوية من السكان من الأقليات العرقية（% |
النسبة المئوية المحلية من السكان |
الترتيب المحلي لسكان العرقية |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| الإجمالي | 1,335,110,869 | 10,410,585 | 100 | 9.28 | 0.77 | ||
| الإجمالي (في المقاطعات ال31) |
1,332,810,869 | 10,387,958 | 99.83 | 9.28 | 0.78 | ||
| G1 | شمال الشرق | 109,513,129 | 6,951,280 | 66.77 | 68.13 | 6.35 | |
| G2 | الشمال | 164,823,663 | 3,002,873 | 28.84 | 32.38 | 1.82 | |
| G3 | الشرق | 392,862,229 | 122,861 | 1.18 | 3.11 | 0.03 | |
| G4 | جنوب الوسط | 375,984,133 | 120,424 | 1.16 | 0.39 | 0.03 | |
| G5 | شمال الغرب | 96,646,530 | 82,135 | 0.79 | 0.40 | 0.08 | |
| G6 | جنوب الغرب | 192,981,185 | 57,785 | 0.56 | 0.15 | 0.03 | |
| 1 | لياوننگ | 43,746,323 | 5,336,895 | 51.26 | 80.34 | 12.20 | 2 |
| 2 | خبي | 71,854,210 | 2,118,711 | 20.35 | 70.80 | 2.95 | 2 |
| 3 | جيلين | 27,452,815 | 866,365 | 8.32 | 39.64 | 3.16 | 3 |
| 4 | هـِيْ‌لونگ‌جيانگ | 38,313,991 | 748,020 | 7.19 | 54.41 | 1.95 | 2 |
| 5 | منغوليا الداخلية | 24,706,291 | 452,765 | 4.35 | 8.96 | 2.14 | 3 |
| 6 | بكين | 19,612,368 | 336,032 | 3.23 | 41.94 | 1.71 | 2 |
| 7 | تيان‌جين | 12,938,693 | 83,624 | 0.80 | 25.23 | 0.65 | 3 |
| 8 | هـِنان | 94,029,939 | 55,493 | 0.53 | 4.95 | 0.06 | 4 |
| 9 | شان‌دونگ | 95,792,719 | 46,521 | 0.45 | 6.41 | 0.05 | 4 |
| 10 | گوانگ‌دونگ | 104,320,459 | 29,557 | 0.28 | 1.43 | 0.03 | 9 |
| 11 | شنگهاي | 23,019,196 | 25,165 | 0.24 | 9.11 | 0.11 | 5 |
| 12 | نينگ‌شيا | 6,301,350 | 24,902 | 0.24 | 1.12 | 0.40 | 3 |
| 13 | گوي‌ژو | 34,748,556 | 23,086 | 0.22 | 0.19 | 0.07 | 18 |
| 14 | شين‌جيانگ | 21,815,815 | 18,707 | 0.18 | 0.14 | 0.09 | 10 |
| 15 | جيانگ‌سو | 78,660,941 | 18,074 | 0.17 | 4.70 | 0.02 | 7 |
| 16 | شآن‌شي | 37,327,379 | 16,291 | 0.16 | 8.59 | 0.04 | 3 |
| 17 | سيشوان | 80,417,528 | 15,920 | 0.15 | 0.32 | 0.02 | 10 |
| 18 | گان‌سو | 25,575,263 | 14,206 | 0.14 | 0.59 | 0.06 | 7 |
| 19 | يون‌نان | 45,966,766 | 13,490 | 0.13 | 0.09 | 0.03 | 24 |
| 20 | هوبـِيْ | 57,237,727 | 12,899 | 0.12 | 0.52 | 0.02 | 6 |
| 21 | شان‌شي | 25,712,101 | 11,741 | 0.11 | 12.54 | 0.05 | 3 |
| 22 | ژجيانگ | 54,426,891 | 11,271 | 0.11 | 0.93 | 0.02 | 13 |
| 23 | گوانگ‌شي | 46,023,761 | 11,159 | 0.11 | 0.07 | 0.02 | 12 |
| 24 | آن‌هوي | 59,500,468 | 8,516 | 0.08 | 2.15 | 0.01 | 4 |
| 25 | فوجيان | 36,894,217 | 8,372 | 0.08 | 1.05 | 0.02 | 10 |
| 26 | چينگ‌هاي | 5,626,723 | 8,029 | 0.08 | 0.30 | 0.14 | 7 |
| 27 | هونان | 65,700,762 | 7,566 | 0.07 | 0.12 | 0.01 | 9 |
| 28 | جيانگ شي | 44,567,797 | 4,942 | 0.05 | 2.95 | 0.01 | 6 |
| 29 | تشونگ‌چينگ | 28,846,170 | 4,571 | 0.04 | 0.24 | 0.02 | 7 |
| 30 | هاينان | 8,671,485 | 3,750 | 0.04 | 0.26 | 0.04 | 8 |
| 31 | التبت | 3,002,165 | 718 | <0.01 | 0.03 | 0.02 | 11 |
| مدنيون نشطون | 2,300,000 | 22,627 | 0.24 | 23.46 | 1.05 | 2 |
مناطق المانچو ذاتية الحكم
| بلدات/بلديات عرقية المانچو |
المحافظة المنطقة ذاتية الحكم البلدية |
المدينة المحافظة |
المقاطعة |
|---|---|---|---|
| Paifang Hui and Manchu Ethnic Township | Anhui | Hefei | Feidong |
| Labagoumen Manchu Ethnic Township | Beijing | N/A | Huairou |
| Changshaoying Manchu Ethnic Township | Beijing | N/A | Huairou |
| Huangni Yi, Miao and Manchu Ethnic Township | Guizhou | Bijie | Dafang |
| Jinpo Miao, Yi and Manchu Ethnic Township | Guizhou | Bijie | Qianxi |
| Anluo Miao, Yi and Manchu Ethnic Township | Guizhou | Bijie | Jinsha |
| Xinhua Miao, Yi and Manchu Ethnic Township | Guizhou | Bijie | Jinsha |
| Tangquan Manchu Ethnic Township | Hebei | Tangshan | Zunhua |
| Xixiaying Manchu Ethnic Township | Hebei | Tangshan | Zunhua |
| Dongling Manchu Ethnic Township | Hebei | Tangshan | Zunhua |
| Lingyunce Manchu and Hui Ethnic Township | Hebei | Baoding | Yi |
| Loucun Manchu Ethnic Township | Hebei | Baoding | Laishui |
| Daweihe Hui and Manchu Ethnic Township | Hebei | Langfang | Wen'an |
| Pingfang Manchu Ethnic Township | Hebei | Chengde | Luanping |
| Anchungou Manchu Ethnic Township | Hebei | Chengde | Luanping |
| Wudaoyingzi Manchu Ethnic Township | Hebei | Chengde | Luanping |
| Zhengchang Manchu Ethnic Township | Hebei | Chengde | Luanping |
| Mayingzi Manchu Ethnic Township | Hebei | Chengde | Luanping |
| Fujiadianzi Manchu Ethnic Township | Hebei | Chengde | Luanping |
| Xidi Manchu Ethnic Township | Hebei | Chengde | Luanping |
| Xiaoying Manchu Ethnic Township | Hebei | Chengde | Luanping |
| Datun Manchu Ethnic Township | Hebei | Chengde | Luanping |
| Xigou Manchu Ethnic Township | Hebei | Chengde | Luanping |
| Gangzi Manchu Ethnic Township | Hebei | Chengde | Chengde |
| Liangjia Manchu Ethnic Township | Hebei | Chengde | Chengde |
| Bagualing Manchu Ethnic Township | Hebei | Chengde | Xinglong |
| Nantianmen Manchu Ethnic Township | Hebei | Chengde | Xinglong |
| Yinjiaying Manchu Ethnic Township | Hebei | Chengde | Longhua |
| Miaozigou Mongol and Manchu Ethnic Township | Hebei | Chengde | Longhua |
| Badaying Manchu Ethnic Township | Hebei | Chengde | Longhua |
| Taipingzhuang Manchu Ethnic Township | Hebei | Chengde | Longhua |
| Jiutun Manchu Ethnic Township | Hebei | Chengde | Longhua |
| Xi'achao Manchu and Mongol Ethnic Township | Hebei | Chengde | Longhua |
| Baihugou Mongol and Manchu Ethnic Township | Hebei | Chengde | Longhua |
| Liuxi Manchu Ethnic Township | Hebei | Chengde | Pingquan |
| Qijiadai Manchu Ethnic Township | Hebei | Chengde | Pingquan |
| Pingfang Manchu and Mongol Ethnic Township | Hebei | Chengde | Pingquan |
| Maolangou Manchu and Mongol Ethnic Township | Hebei | Chengde | Pingquan |
| Xuzhangzi Manchu Ethnic Township | Hebei | Chengde | Pingquan |
| Nanwushijia Manchu and Mongol Ethnic Township | Hebei | Chengde | Pingquan |
| Guozhangzi Manchu Ethnic Township | Hebei | Chengde | Pingquan |
| Hongqi Manchu Ethnic Township | Heilongjiang | Harbin | Nangang |
| Xingfu Manchu Ethnic Township | Heilongjiang | Harbin | Shuangcheng |
| Lequn Manchu Ethnic Township | Heilongjiang | Harbin | Shuangcheng |
| Tongxin Manchu Ethnic Township | Heilongjiang | Harbin | Shuangcheng |
| Xiqin Manchu Ethnic Township | Heilongjiang | Harbin | Shuangcheng |
| Gongzheng Manchu Ethnic Township | Heilongjiang | Harbin | Shuangcheng |
| Lianxing Manchu Ethnic Township | Heilongjiang | Harbin | Shuangcheng |
| Xinxing Manchu Ethnic Township | Heilongjiang | Harbin | Shuangcheng |
| Qingling Manchu Ethnic Township | Heilongjiang | Harbin | Shuangcheng |
| Nongfeng Manchu and Xibe Ethnic Town | Heilongjiang | Harbin | Shuangcheng |
| Yuejin Manchu Ethnic Township | Heilongjiang | Harbin | Shuangcheng |
| Lalin Manchu Ethnic Town | Heilongjiang | Harbin | Wuchang |
| Hongqi Manchu Ethnic Township | Heilongjiang | Harbin | Wuchang |
| Niujia Manchu Ethnic Town | Heilongjiang | Harbin | Wuchang |
| Yingchengzi Manchu Ethnic Township | Heilongjiang | Harbin | Wuchang |
| Shuangqiaozi Manchu Ethnic Township | Heilongjiang | Harbin | Wuchang |
| Liaodian Manchu Ethnic Township | Heilongjiang | Harbin | Acheng |
| Shuishiying Manchu Ethnic Township | Heilongjiang | Qiqihar | Ang'angxi |
| Youyi Daur, Kirgiz and Manchu Ethnic Township | Heilongjiang | Qiqihar | Fuyu |
| Taha Manchu and Daur Ethnic Township | Heilongjiang | Qiqihar | Fuyu |
| Jiangnan Korean and Manchu Ethnic Township | Heilongjiang | Mudanjiang | Ning'an |
| Chengdong Korean and Manchu Ethnic Township | Heilongjiang | Mudanjiang | Ning'an |
| Sijiazi Manchu Ethnic Township | Heilongjiang | Heihe | Aihui |
| Yanjiang Daur and Manchu Ethnic Township | Heilongjiang | Heihe | Sunwu |
| Suisheng Manchu Ethnic Town | Heilongjiang | Suihua | Beilin |
| Yong'an Manchu Ethnic Town | Heilongjiang | Suihua | Beilin |
| Hongqi Manchu Ethnic Township | Heilongjiang | Suihua | Beilin |
| Huiqi Manchu Ethnic Town | Heilongjiang | Suihua | Wangkui |
| Xiangbai Manchu Ethnic Township | Heilongjiang | Suihua | Wangkui |
| Lingshan Manchu Ethnic Township | Heilongjiang | Suihua | Wangkui |
| Fuxing Manchu Ethnic Township | Heilongjiang | Hegang | Suibin |
| Chengfu Korean and Manchu Ethnic Township | Heilongjiang | Shuangyashan | Youyi |
| Longshan Manchu Ethnic Township | Jilin | Siping | Gongzhuling |
| Ershijiazi Manchu Ethnic Town | Jilin | Siping | Gongzhuling |
| Sanjiazi Manchu Ethnic Township | Jilin | Yanbian | Hunchun |
| Yangpao Manchu Ethnic Township | Jilin | Yanbian | Hunchun |
| Wulajie Manchu Ethnic Town | Jilin | Jilin City | Longtan |
| Dakouqin Manchu Ethnic Town | Jilin | Jilin City | Yongji |
| Liangjiazi Manchu Ethnic Township | Jilin | Jilin City | Yongji |
| Jinjia Manchu Ethnic Township | Jilin | Jilin City | Yongji |
| Tuchengzi Manchu and Korean Ethnic Township | Jilin | Jilin City | Yongji |
| Jindou Korean and Manchu Ethnic Township | Jilin | Tonghua | Tonghua County |
| Daquanyuan Korean and Manchu Ethnic Township | Jilin | Tonghua | Tonghua County |
| Xiaoyang Manchu and Korean Ethnic Township | Jilin | Tonghua | Meihekou |
| Sanhe Manchu and Korean Ethnic Township | Jilin | Liaoyuan | Dongfeng County |
| Mantang Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Shenyang | Dongling |
| Liushutun Mongol and Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Shenyang | Kangping |
| Shajintai Mongol and Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Shenyang | Kangping |
| Dongsheng Manchu and Mongol Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Shenyang | Kangping |
| Liangguantun Mongol and Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Shenyang | Kangping |
| Shihe Manchu Ethnic Town | Liaoning | Dalian | Jinzhou |
| Qidingshan Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Dalian | Jinzhou |
| Taling Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Dalian | Zhuanghe |
| Gaoling Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Dalian | Zhuanghe |
| Guiyunhua Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Dalian | Zhuanghe |
| Sanjiashan Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Dalian | Zhuanghe |
| Yangjia Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Dalian | Wafangdian |
| Santai Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Dalian | Wafangdian |
| Laohutun Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Dalian | Wafangdian |
| Dagushan Manchu Ethnic Town | Liaoning | Anshan | Qianshan |
| Songsantaizi Korean and Manchu Ethnic Town | Liaoning | Anshan | Qianshan |
| Lagu Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Fushun | Fushun County |
| Tangtu Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Fushun | Fushun County |
| Sishanling Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Benxi | Nanfen |
| Xiamatang Manchu Ethnic Town | Liaoning | Benxi | Nanfen |
| Huolianzhai Hui and Manchu Ethnic Town | Liaoning | Benxi | Xihu |
| Helong Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Dandong | Donggang |
| Longwangmiao Manchu and Xibe Ethnic Town | Liaoning | Dandong | Donggang |
| Juliangtun Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Jinzhou | Yi |
| Jiudaoling Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Jinzhou | Yi |
| Dizangsi Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Jinzhou | Yi |
| Hongqiangzi Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Jinzhou | Yi |
| Liulonggou Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Jinzhou | Yi |
| Shaohuyingzi Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Jinzhou | Yi |
| Dadingpu Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Jinzhou | Yi |
| Toutai Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Jinzhou | Yi |
| Toudaohe Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Jinzhou | Yi |
| Chefang Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Jinzhou | Yi |
| Wuliangdian Manchu Ethnic Town | Liaoning | Jinzhou | Yi |
| Baichanmen Manchu Ethnic Town | Liaoning | Jinzhou | Heishan |
| Zhen'an Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Jinzhou | Heishan |
| Wendilou Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Jinzhou | Linghai |
| Youwei Manchu Ethnic Town | Liaoning | Jinzhou | Linghai |
| East Liujiazi Manchu and Mongol Ethnic Town | Liaoning | Fuxin | Zhangwu |
| West Liujiazi Manchu and Mongol Ethnic Town | Liaoning | Fuxin | Zhangwu |
| Jidongyu Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Liaoyang | Liaoyang County |
| Shuiquan Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Liaoyang | Liaoyang County |
| Tianshui Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Liaoyang | Liaoyang County |
| Quantou Manchu Ethnic Town | Liaoning | Tieling | Changtu County |
| Babaotun Manchu, Xibe and Korean Ethnic Town | Liaoning | Tieling | Kaiyuan |
| Huangqizhai Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Tieling | Kaiyuan |
| Shangfeidi Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Tieling | Kaiyuan |
| Xiafeidi Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Tieling | Kaiyuan |
| Linfeng Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Tieling | Kaiyuan |
| Baiqizhai Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Tieling | Tieling County |
| Hengdaohezi Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Tieling | Tieling County |
| Chengping Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Tieling | Xifeng |
| Dexing Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Tieling | Xifeng |
| Helong Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Tieling | Xifeng |
| Jinxing Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Tieling | Xifeng |
| Mingde Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Tieling | Xifeng |
| Songshu Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Tieling | Xifeng |
| Yingcheng Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Tieling | Xifeng |
| Xipingpo Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Huludao | Suizhong |
| Dawangmiao Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Huludao | Suizhong |
| Fanjia Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Huludao | Suizhong |
| Gaodianzi Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Huludao | Suizhong |
| Gejia Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Huludao | Suizhong |
| Huangdi Manchu Ethnic Town | Liaoning | Huludao | Suizhong |
| Huangjia Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Huludao | Suizhong |
| Kuanbang Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Huludao | Suizhong |
| Mingshui Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Huludao | Suizhong |
| Shahe Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Huludao | Suizhong |
| Wanghu Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Huludao | Suizhong |
| Xiaozhuangzi Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Huludao | Suizhong |
| Yejia Manchu Ethnic Town | Liaoning | Huludao | Suizhong |
| Gaotai Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Huludao | Suizhong |
| Baita Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Huludao | Xingcheng |
| Caozhuang Manchu Ethnic Town | Liaoning | Huludao | Xingcheng |
| Dazhai Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Huludao | Xingcheng |
| Dongxinzhuang Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Huludao | Xingcheng |
| Gaojialing Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Huludao | Xingcheng |
| Guojia Manchu Ethnic Town | Liaoning | Huludao | Xingcheng |
| Haibin Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Huludao | Xingcheng |
| Hongyazi Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Huludao | Xingcheng |
| Jianjin Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Huludao | Xingcheng |
| Jianchang Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Huludao | Xingcheng |
| Jiumen Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Huludao | Xingcheng |
| Liutaizi Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Huludao | Xingcheng |
| Nandashan Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Huludao | Xingcheng |
| Shahousuo Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Huludao | Xingcheng |
| Wanghai Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Huludao | Xingcheng |
| Weiping Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Huludao | Xingcheng |
| Wenjia Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Huludao | Xingcheng |
| Yang'an Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Huludao | Xingcheng |
| Yaowangmiao Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Huludao | Xingcheng |
| Yuantaizi Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Huludao | Xingcheng |
| Erdaowanzi Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Huludao | Jianchang |
| Xintaimen Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Huludao | Lianshan |
| Manzutun Manchu Ethnic Township | Inner Mongolia | Hinggan | Horqin Right Front Banner |
| Guanjiayingzi Manchu Ethnic Township | Inner Mongolia | Chifeng | Songshan |
| Shijia Manchu Ethnic Township | Inner Mongolia | Chifeng | Harqin Banner |
| Caonian Manchu Ethnic Township | Inner Mongolia | Ulanqab | Liangcheng |
| Sungezhuang Manchu Ethnic Township | Tianjin | N/A | Ji |
Manchu autonomous area in north China.
![Manchu autonomous area in Liaoning.[note 3]](/w/images/thumb/c/c4/Manchu_autonomous_regions_in_Liaoning.png/120px-Manchu_autonomous_regions_in_Liaoning.png)
Manchu autonomous area in Liaoning.[note 3]
Manchu autonomous area in Jilin.
Manchu autonomous area in Hebei.
![Manchu autonomous area in Liaoning.[note 3]](/%D9%85%D9%84%D9%81:Manchu_autonomous_regions_in_Liaoning.png)
مناطق أخرى
- مقالة مفصلة: شعب المانچو في تايوان
Manchu people can be found living outside mainland China. There are approximately 12,000 Manchus now in Taiwan. Most of them moved to Taiwan with the ROC government in 1949. One notable example was Puru, a famous painter, calligrapher and also the founder of the Manchu Association of Republic of China.
الثقافة
Influence on other Tungusic peoples
The Manchus implemented measures to "Manchufy" the other Tungusic peoples living around the Amur River basin.[75] The southern Tungusic Manchus influenced the northern Tungusic peoples linguistically, culturally, and religiously.[75]
اللغة والأبجدية
اللغة
The Manchu language is a Tungusic language and has many dialects. Its standard form is called "Standard Manchu". It originates from the accent of Jianzhou Jurchens[172] and was officially standardized during the Qianlong Emperor's reign.[27] During the Qing dynasty, Manchus at the imperial court were required to speak Standard Manchu or face the emperor's reprimand.[172] This applied equally to the palace presbyter for shamanic rites when performing sacrifice.[172]
After the 19th century, most Manchus had perfected Standard Chinese and the number of Manchu speakers was dwindling.[27] Although the Qing emperors emphasized the importance of the Manchu language again and again, the tide could not be turned. After the Qing dynasty collapsed, the Manchu language lost its status as a national language and its official use in education ended. Manchus today generally speak Standard Chinese. The remaining skilled native Manchu speakers number less than 100,[173] most of whom are to be found in Sanjiazi (المانچو: ᡳᠯᠠᠨ
ᠪᠣᡠ; Möllendorff: ilan boo; Abkai: ilan bou), Heilongjiang Province.[174] Since the 1980s, there has been a resurgence of the Manchu language among the government, scholars and social activities.[63] In recent years, with the help of the governments in Liaoning, Jilin and Heilongjiang, many schools started to have Manchu classes.[175][176][177] There are also Manchu volunteers in many places of China who freely teach Manchu in the desire to rescue the language.[178][179][180][181] Thousands of non-Manchus have learned the language through these platforms.[182][183][184]
Today, in an effort to save Manchu culture from extinction, the older generation of Manchus are spending their own money and time to teach young people. In an effort to encourage learners, these classes were oftentimes free. They teach through the Internet and even mail Manchu textbooks for free, all for the purpose of protecting the national cultural traditions.[185]
الأبجدية
The Jurchens, ancestors of the Manchus, had created Jurchen script in the Jin dynasty. After the Jin dynasty collapsed, the Jurchen script was gradually lost. In the Ming dynasty, 60%–70% of Jurchens used Mongolian script to write letters and 30%–40% of Jurchens used Chinese characters.[65] This persisted until Nurhaci revolted against the Ming Empire. Nurhaci considered it a major impediment that his people lacked a script of their own, so he commanded his scholars, Gagai and Eldeni, to create Manchu characters by reference to Mongolian scripts.[186] They dutifully complied with the Khan's order and created Manchu script, which is called "script without dots and circles" (المانچو: ᡨᠣᠩᡴᡳ
ᡶᡠᡴᠠ
ᠠᡴᡡ
ᡥᡝᡵᡤᡝᠨ; Möllendorff: tongki fuka akū hergen; Abkai: tongki fuka akv hergen; 无圈点满文�) or "old Manchu script" (老满文�).[105] Due to its hurried creation, the script has its defects. Some vowels and consonants were difficult to distinguish.[106][27] Shortly afterwards, their successor Dahai used dots and circles to distinguish vowels, aspirated and non-aspirated consonants and thus completed the script. His achievement is called "script with dots and circles" or "new Manchu script".[187]
الوضع الحالي
الأسماء وطرق التسمية
أسماء العائلة
الألقاب
الوضع الحالي
طقوس الدفن
تصفيفة الشعر التقليدية
الزي التقليدي
الأنشطة التقليدية
ركوب الخيل والرامية
مصارعة المانچو
تدريب الصقور
التزلج على الجليد
الأدب
الفنون الشعبية
الدين
الشامانية المانچوية
البوذية
الديانة التقليدية الصينية
المسيحية
العطلات التقليدية
انظر أيضاً
الهوامش
- ^ Also known as Man,[4] Bannermen,[5][6] شعب الراية،[7] التتار،[8] المنغول ذوي الشارات الحمراء (红缨蒙古),[9] المنغول المرتدون للشارات الحمراء (戴红缨的蒙古人)[10] والتتار المتردون للشارات الحمراء (戴红缨达子)[10]
- ^ Fengcheng and Beizhen are cities but treated as Manchu autonomous counties.[14]
- ^ Autonomous counties are shown in bright green. Counties with autonomous townships are in dark green, with the number of Manchu townshipin each county shown in red (or yellow). So are another 2 pictures
المصادر
الحواشي
- ^ أ ب ت 中国2010年人口普查资料 上中下 (the Data of 2010 China Population Census). China Statistics Press. 2012. ISBN 9787503765070.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - ^ Manchusoc：The Origins of Manchu People in Taiwan (traditional Chinese)
- ^ the Gospel Need of Manchu People (simplified Chinese)
- ^ "Manchu". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 18 March 2015.
- ^ Elliott 2001, pp. 13–15
- ^ lear. "词语"旗人"的解释 汉典 zdic.net". Retrieved 18 March 2015.
- ^ Elliott 2001, p. 15
- ^ Elliott 2001, p. 98
- ^ Various authors 2008, p. 258 (Shizu period)
- ^ أ ب Uyun Bilig: The Files of Chahar and Ligdan Khan in Ming Dynasty (simplified Chinese)
- ^ Merriam-Webster, Inc 2003, p. 754
- ^ Zheng 2009, p. 79
- ^ Vollmer 2002, p. 76
- ^ Writing Group of Manchu Brief History 2009, p. 207
- ^ Writing Group of Manchu Brief History 2009, pp. 206–207
- ^ أ ب ت ث ج Peterson, Willard J. (2002). the Cambridge History of China, the Ch'ing dynasty to 1800. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-24334-6.
- ^ Endymion Porter Wilkinson (2000). Chinese History: A Manual. Harvard Univ Asia Center. p. 728. ISBN 978-0-674-00249-4.
- ^ Yan, Chongnian (2008). 《明亡清兴六十年（彩图珍藏版）》 [60 Years History of the Perishing Ming and Rising Qing, Valuable Colored Picture Edition]. Zhonghua Book Compary. ISBN 9787101059472.
- ^ Agui (1988). 《满洲源流考》 [Researches on Manchu Origins]. 辽宁民族古籍历史类. Liaoning Nationality Publishing House. p. 2. ISBN 9787805270609.
- ^ أ ب ت ث ج ح خ د ذ Meng (孟), Sen (森) (2006). 《满洲开国史讲义》 [the Lecture Note of Early Manchu History]. 孟森著作集. Zhonghua Book Company. ISBN 978-7101050301.
- ^ 《族称Manju词源探析》 [The Research of Ethnic Name "Manju"'s Origin]. 《满语研究》 [Manchu Language Research] (1). 2009.
- ^ Feng, Jiasheng (冯家升). 《满洲名称之种种推测》 [Many Kinds of Conjecture of the Name "Manju"]. 《东方杂志》 [Dongfang Magazine]. 30 (17).
- ^ Teng, Shaojian (滕绍箴) (April 1996). 《满洲名称考述》 [Textual Research of the Name "Manju"]. 《民族研究》 [Ethnicities Research]: 70–77.
- ^ Norman, Jerry (2003). "The Manchus and Their Language (Presidential Address)". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 123 (3): 484. doi:10.2307/3217747. JSTOR 3217747.
- ^ Hölzl, Andreas (2023). "The Etymology of "Manchu": A Critical Evaluation of the Riverside Hypothesis". International Journal of Eurasian Linguistics. 4 (2): 160–208. doi:10.1163/25898833-00420028. S2CID 257527009.
- ^ Li, Yanguang; Guan, Jie (2009). 《满族通史》 [General History of Manchus]. National Publishing House. p. 2. ISBN 9787805271965.
- ^ أ ب ت ث Tong, Yonggong (2009). 《满语文与满文档案研究》 [Research of Manchu Language and Archives]. 满族（清代）历史文化研究文库. Liaoning Nationality Publishing House. ISBN 978-7805070438.
- ^ أ ب Huang, Pei (June 1990). "New Light on The Origins of The Manchus". Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies. 50 (1): 239–282. doi:10.2307/2719229. JSTOR 2719229.
- ^ أ ب Gorelova, Liliya M., ed. (2002). Handbook of Oriental Studies. Section 8 Uralic & Central Asian Studies, Manchu Grammar. Vol. Seven Manchu Grammar. Brill Academic Pub. pp. 13–14. ISBN 978-9004123076.
- ^ Vajda, E. J. "Manchu (Jurchen)". Pandora Web Space (Western Washington University). Professor Edward Vajda. Archived from the original on 1 June 2010. Retrieved 16 February 2014.
- ^ Sinor, Denis, ed. (1990). The Cambridge History of Early Inner Asia, Volume 1 (illustrated, reprint ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 416. ISBN 978-0521243049.
- ^ Twitchett, Denis C.; Franke, Herbert; Fairbank, John King, eds. (1994). The Cambridge History of China: Volume 6, Alien Regimes and Border States, 710-1368 (illustrated, reprint ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 217. ISBN 978-0521243315.
- ^ de Rachewiltz, Igor, ed. (1993). In the Service of the Khan: Eminent Personalities of the Early Mongol-Yüan Period (1200-1300). Vol. 121 of Asiatische Forschungen. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. p. 112. ISBN 978-3447033398. ISSN 0571-320X.
{{cite book}}:|journal=ignored (help) - ^ أ ب Schneider, Julia (2011). "The Jin Revisited: New Assessment of Jurchen Emperors". Journal of Song-Yuan Studies (41): 389. JSTOR 23496214.
- ^ Takekoshi, Yosaburō (2004). The Economic Aspects of the History of the Civilization of Japan, Volume 1 (reprint ed.). Taylor & Francis. p. 134. ISBN 0415323797.
- ^ Batten, Bruce L. (31 January 2006). Gateway to Japan: Hakata in War and Peace, 500–1300. University of Hawaii Press. pp. 102, 101, 100. ISBN 9780824842925.
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The Jurchen settlements in the Amnok River region had been tributaries of Koryŏ since the establishment of the dynasty, when T'aejo Wang Kŏn heavily relied on a large segment of Jurchen cavalry to defeat the armies of Later Paekche. The position and status of these Jurchen is hard to determine using the framework of the Koryŏ and Liao states as reference, since the Jurchen leaders generally took care to steer a middle course between Koryŏ and Liao, changing sides or absconding whenever that was deemed the best course. As mentioned above, Koryŏ and Liao competed quite fiercely to obtain the allegiance of the Jurchen settlers who in the absence of large armies effectively controlled much of the frontier area outside the Koryŏ and Liao fortifications. These Jurchen communities were expert in handling the tension between Liao and Koryŏ, playing out divide-and-rule policies backed up by threats of border violence. It seems that the relationship between the semi-nomadic Jurchen and their peninsular neighbours bore much resemblance to the relationship between Chinese states and their nomad neighbours, as described by Thomas Barfield.
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「兵部尚書啟秀因曾力助舊黨，並曾奏保五臺山僧人普靜為聖僧，調令攻襲什庫，八月廿七日為日兵拘禁。」
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- ^ https://books.google.co.nz/books?id=EKEUAQAAIAAJ&q=the+meaning+of+the+pigtail+since+Manchu+living+in+Northern+Manchuria+at+the+outbreak+of+the+Revolution+of+1911+immediately+cut+off+their+pigtails+thinking+it+was+a+hairdo+taken+over+from+the+Chinese+(+Shirokogoroff+1924+:+148+)+.&dq=the+meaning+of+the+pigtail+since+Manchu+living+in+Northern+Manchuria+at+the+outbreak+of+the+Revolution+of+1911+immediately+cut+off+their+pigtails+thinking+it+was+a+hairdo+taken+over+from+the+Chinese+(+Shirokogoroff+1924+:+148+)+.&hl=en&source=gb_mobile_entity&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=the+meaning+of+the+pigtail+since+Manchu+living+in+Northern+Manchuria+at+the+outbreak+of+the+Revolution+of+1911+immediately+cut+off+their+pigtails+thinking+it+was+a+hairdo+taken+over+from+the+Chinese+(+Shirokogoroff+1924+:+148+)+.&dq=the+meaning+of+the+pigtail+since+Manchu+living+in+Northern+Manchuria+at+the+outbreak+of+the+Revolution+of+1911+immediately+cut+off+their+pigtails+thinking+it+was+a+hairdo+taken+over+from+the+Chinese+(+Shirokogoroff+1924+:+148+)+.&f=false Siberia and Russian America: Culture and Arts from the 1700s, the Asch Collection, Göttingen p 127
- ^ أ ب ت ث ج Jin, Qicong (2009). 《金启孮谈北京的满族》 [Jin Qicong Talks About Beijing Manchus]. Zhonghua Book Company. ISBN 978-7101068566.
- ^ * Aisin Gioro, Puyi (2007). 《我的前半生（全本）》 [First Half of My Life, Full Edition]. 我的前半生. Qunzhong Publishing House. pp. 223–224. ISBN 9787501435579.
- ^ أ ب Tamanoi, Mariko Asano (May 2000). "Knowledge, Power, and Racial Classification: The "Japanese" in "Manchuria"". The Journal of Asian Studies. 59 (2): 248–276. doi:10.2307/2658656. JSTOR 2658656. S2CID 161103830.
- ^ Fuliang Shan, Patrick (2015). "Elastic Self-consciousness and the reshaping of Manchu Identity". In Hong, Zhaohui (ed.). Ethnic China: Identity, Assimilation and Resistance. Lexington and Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 39–59.
- ^ Du, Jiaji (2008). 《八旗与清朝政治论稿》 [Eight Banner and Qing Dynasty's Political Paper Drafts]. 国家清史编纂委员会·研究丛刊. Renmin Publishing House. p. 46. ISBN 9787010067537.
- ^ Li, Lin (2006). 《满族宗谱研究》 [Research of Manchu Genealogy]. Liaoning Nationality Publishing House. p. 121. ISBN 9787807221715.
- ^ Zhang, Jiasheng (2008a). 《八旗十论》 [Ten Papers of Eight Banners]. 满族（清代）历史文化研究文库. Liaoning Nationality Publishing House. pp. 230, 233, 248. ISBN 9787807226093.
- ^ "Eras Journal – Tighe, J: Review of "The Manchus", Pamela Kyle Crossley". Archived from the original on 3 March 2011. Retrieved 27 April 2011.
- ^ Poston, Dudley. The Population of Modern China. Plenum Press. p. 595.
- ^ Carrico, Kevin. "China's State of Warring Styles". China Heritage. Retrieved 2022-08-28.
- ^ أ ب ت ث ج خطأ استشهاد: وسم
<ref>غير صحيح؛ لا نص تم توفيره للمراجع المسماة2010data - ^ أ ب ت Aisin Gioro, Yingsheng (2004). 《满语杂识》 [Divers Knowledges of Manchu language]. Wenyuan Publishing House. ISBN 978-7-80060-008-1.
- ^ 全国现有满族人口1000多万 会说满语者已不足百人 [There are more than 10 million Manchu people in the country, and less than 100 people can speak Manchu]. People - China. 2007-10-29. Archived from the original on 2007-11-03. Retrieved 18 March 2015.
- ^ 满语"活化石"――"伊兰孛"--文化--人民网. Archived from the original on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 18 March 2015.
- ^ 本溪桓仁29名满语教师上岗 [29 Manchu language teachers in Benxi Huanren are on duty]. China News. 2012-03-20. Archived from the original on 2012-03-22.
- ^ 辽宁一高中开设满语课 满族文化传承引关注 [A high school in Liaoning offers Manchu courses, and the inheritance of Manchu culture attracts attention]. China News. Retrieved 18 March 2015.
- ^ 满语课首次进入吉林一中学课堂(图) [Manchu class entered the classroom of Jilin No. 1 Middle School for the first time (photo)]. Sina. 2012-03-22. Retrieved 18 March 2015.
- ^ 中国民族报电子版. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 18 March 2015.
- ^ "iFeng: Jin Biao's 10-Year Dream of Manchu Language (traditional Chinese)". ifeng.com. Archived from the original on 25 January 2013. Retrieved 23 September 2012.
- ^ "Shenyang Daily: Young Man Teaches Manchu For Free To Rescue the Language (simplified Chinese)". syd.com.cn. Archived from the original on 13 May 2013. Retrieved 19 June 2012.
- ^ "The Worry of Manchu Language". Beijing Evening News. 2012-03-03. Archived from the original on 2013-05-13.
- ^ خطأ استشهاد: وسم
<ref>غير صحيح؛ لا نص تم توفيره للمراجع المسماةtakungpao - ^ 别让满语文成天书 满语文抢救需靠大众力量[组图]_辽宁_文化. Archived from the original on 28 December 2013. Retrieved 18 March 2015.
- ^ "1980s Generation's Rescue Plan of Manchu Language". Beijing Evening News. 2013-03-03. Archived from the original on 2013-05-13.
- ^ Feng Yun-ying (2016). 满语满文在丹东地区的衰微及其对满族文化发掘保护的影响 [Declination of Manchu Language and Characters in Dandong and Its Effect on Excavation and Protection of Manchu Culture]. Journal of Liaodong University (Social Science Edition). 18 (1). doi:10.14168/j.issn.1672-8572.2016.01.13.
- ^ Jiang, Liangqi (1980). 《东华录》 [Donghua Record]. Zhonghua Book Compary.
- ^ Dahai; First Historical Archives of China (1990). 《满文老档 译著》 [Old Manchu Archive, Translated Version]. Zhonghua Book Company. pp. 1196–1197. ISBN 9787101005875.
كتب
بالصينية
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{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Agui (1988). 满洲源流考 (Researches on Manchu Origins). Liaoning Nationality Publishing House. ISBN 9787805270609.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Aisin Gioro, Yingsheng (2004). 满语杂识 (Divers Knowledges of Manchu language). Wenyuan Publishing House. ISBN 7-80060-008-4.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Anonymous (1879). 竹书纪年校正, 光绪五年刻本 (Zhu Shu Ji Nian, 1879 Edition).
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Dahai; First Historical Archives of China (1990). 满文老档 译著(Old Manchu Archive, Translated Version). Zhonghua Book Company. ISBN 9787101005875.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Du, Jiaji (2008). 八旗与清朝政治论稿 (Eight Banner and Qing Dynasty's Political Paper Drafts). Renmin Publishing House. ISBN 9787010067537.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Du, Jiaji (1997). 清朝简史 (Brief History of Qing Dynasty). Fujian People's Publishing House. ISBN 9787211027163.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Fuge (1984). 听雨丛谈 (Miscellaneous Discussions Whilst Listening To The Rain). Zhonghua Book Company. ISBN 978-7-101-01698-7.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Gao, Hehong (2011). 满族说部传承研究 (The Research of Manchu Ulabun). China Social Sciences Pres. ISBN 9787500497127.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Hu, Zengyi (1994). 新满汉大词典 (A Comprehensive Manchu-Chinese Dictionary). Xinjiang People's Publishing House. ISBN 9787228024049.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Hungjeo (2002). 八旗满洲氏族通谱 (Eight Manchu Banners' Surname-Clans' Book). Liaohai Publishing House. ISBN 9787806691892.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Jiang, Liangqi (1980). 东华录 (Donghua Record). Zhonghua Book Compary.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Jin, Qicong (2009). 金启孮谈北京的满族 (Jin Qicong Talks About Beijing Manchus). Zhonghua Book Company. ISBN 7101068561.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Jin, Qicong; Kaihe (2006). 中国摔跤史 (the Wrestling History of China). Inner Mongolia People's Publishing House. ISBN 7204088093.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Jooliyan (1980). 啸亭杂录 (Xiaoting Various Records). Zhonghua Book Company. ISBN 9787101017519.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Li, Lin (2006). 满族宗谱研究 (Research of Manchu Genealogy). Liaoning Nationality Publishing House. ISBN 9787807221715.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Li, Yanguang; Guan, Jie (2009). 满族通史 (General History of Manchus). National Publishing House. ISBN 9787805271965.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Liu, Jingxian; Zhao, Aping; Zhao, Jinchun (1997). 满语研究通论 (General Theory of Manchu Language Research). Heilongjiang Korean Nationalty Publishing House. ISBN 9787538907650.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Liu, Xiaomeng (2008). 清代八旗子弟 (the Bannermen in Qing Dynasty). Liaoning Nationality Publishing House. ISBN 978-7-80722-563-8.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Meng, Sen (2006). 满洲开国史讲义 (the Lectrue Note of Early Manchu History). Zhonghua Book Company. ISBN 7101050301.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - National Census Bureau of Chinese State Concil (2012). 中国2010年人口普查资料（上中下） (the Data of 2010 China Population Census). China Statistics Press. ISBN 9787503765070.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Ortai (1985). 八旗通志初集 (Comprehensive History of the Eight Banners, First Edition). Northeast Normal University Press.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Puyi (2007). 我的前半生 全本 (First Half of My Life, Full Edition). Qunzhong Publishing House. ISBN 9787501435579.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Song, Lian (1976). 元史 (History of Yuan). Zhonghua Book Company. ISBN 9787101003260.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Tong, Yonggong (2009). 满语文与满文档案研究 (the Research of Manchu language and files). Liaoning Nationality Publishing House. ISBN 7805070431.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Toqto'a (1975). 金史 (History of Jin). Zhonghua Book Company. ISBN 9787101003253.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Various authors (2008). 清实录 (Veritable Records of the Qing dynasty). Zhonghua Book Compary. ISBN 9787101056266.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Writing Group of Manchu Brief History (2009). 满族简史 (Brief History of Manchus). National Publishing House. ISBN 9787105087259.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Yan, Chongnian (2006). 努尔哈赤传 (the Biography of Nurhaci). Beijing Publishing House. ISBN 9787200016598.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Yan, Chongnian (2008). 明亡清兴六十年 彩图珍藏版 (60 Years History of the Perishing Ming and Rising Qing, Valuable Colored Picture Edition). Zhonghua Book Compary. ISBN 9787101059472.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Yang, Xichun (1988). 满族风俗考 (The Research of Manchu Tradition). Heilongjiang People's Publishing House. ISBN 9787207005984.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Yi, Min-hwan (1978). 清初史料丛刊第八、九种：栅中日录校释、建州见闻录校释 (The Collection of Early Qing's Historical Sources, Vol.8 & 9: Records in the Fence; Witness Records of Jianzhou). History Department of Liaoning University.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Zeng, Hui (2010). 满族服饰文化研究 (The Research of Manchu Clothing Culture). Liaoning Nationality Publishing House. ISBN 9787807229711.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Zhao, Erxun (2009). 清史稿 (Draft History of Qing). Zhonghua Book Compary. ISBN 9787101007503.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - 八旗十论 (Ten Papers of Eight Banners). Liaoning Nationality Publishing House. 2008. ISBN 9787807226093.
{{cite book}}:|first=missing|last=(help); Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Zhang, Jie; Zhang, Danhui (2005). 清代东北边疆的满族 (The Manchus of Manchurian Frontier Region in Qing Dynasty). Liaoning Nationality Publishing House. ISBN 9787806448656.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Zhang, Tingyu (1974). 明史 (History of Ming). Zhonghua Book Compary. ISBN 9787101003277.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Zheng, Tianting (2010). 探微集 (Collection of Minor Research). Zhonghua Book Compary. ISBN 9787101069853.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Zheng, Tianting (2009). 郑天挺元史讲义 (Zheng Tianting's Lectrue Note of Yuan Dynasty History). Zhonghua Book Compary. ISBN 9787101070132.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help)
بالإنگليزية
- Aisin Gioro, Ulhicun; Jin, Shi. "Manchuria from the Fall of the Yuan to the rise of the Manchu State (1368-1636)" (PDF). Retrieved 10 March 2014.
- Association for Asian Studies. Ming Biographical History Project Committee (1976). Goodrich, Luther Carrington (ed.). Dictionary of Ming Biography, 1368-1644, Volume 2 (illustrated ed.). Columbia University Press. ISBN 023103833X. Retrieved 10 March 2014.
- Association for Asian Studies (1987). The Journal of Asian Studies, Volume 46. Cambridge University Press.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Chang, Yin-t'ang; University of Washington. Far Eastern and Russian Institute (1956). A Regional handbook on Northeast China. Vol. Volume 61 of Human Relations Area Files: Subcontractor's monograph, HRAF. The Institute. Retrieved 10 March 2014.
{{cite book}}:|volume=has extra text (help) - Crossley, Pamela Kyle (1990). Orphan Warriors: Three Manchu Generations and the End of the Qing World (illustrated, reprint ed.). Princeton University Press. ISBN 0691008779. Retrieved 10 March 2014.
- Crossley, Pamela Kyle (2002). A Translucent Mirror: History and Identity in Qing Imperial Ideology. University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-23424-3.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Crossley, Pamela Kyle; Siu, Helen F.; Sutton, Donald S., eds. (2006). Empire at the Margins: Culture, Ethnicity, and Frontier in Early Modern China. Vol. Volume 28 of Studies on China (illustrated ed.). University of California Press. ISBN 0520230159. Retrieved 10 March 2014.
{{cite book}}:|volume=has extra text (help) - Crossley, Pamela Kyle (2010). Kagan, Kimberly (ed.). The Imperial Moment. Paul Bushkovitch, Nicholas Canny, Pamela Kyle Crossley, Arthur Eckstein, Frank Ninkovich, Loren J. Samons. Harvard University Press. ISBN 0674054091. Retrieved 10 March 2014.
- Crossley, Pamela Kyle (2002). The Manchus (The People of Asia Series). Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 0-631-23591-4.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Breuker, Remco E. (2010). Establishing a Pluralist Society in Medieval Korea, 918-1170: History, Ideology and Identity in the Koryŏ Dynasty. Vol. Volume 1 of Brill's Korean Studies Library. BRILL. ISBN 9004183256. Retrieved 10 March 2014.
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- de Rachewiltz, Igor, ed. (1993). In the Service of the Khan: Eminent Personalities of the Early Mongol-Yüan Period (1200-1300). Vol. Volume 121 of Asiatische Forschungen. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. ISBN 3447033398. ISSN 0571-320X. Retrieved 10 March 2014.
{{cite book}}:|volume=has extra text (help) - Di Cosmo, Nicola (2007). The Diary of a Manchu Soldier in Seventeenth-Century China: "My Service in the Army", by Dzengseo. Vol. Volume 3 of Routledge Studies in the Early History of Asia (annotated ed.). Routledge. ISBN 113578955X. Retrieved 10 March 2014.
{{cite book}}:|volume=has extra text (help) - Dunnell, Ruth W.; Elliott, Mark C.; Foret, Philippe; Millward, James A (2004). New Qing Imperial History: The Making of Inner Asian Empire at Qing Chengde. Routledge. ISBN 1134362226. Retrieved 10 March 2014.
- Dvořák, Rudolf (1895). Chinas religionen ... Vol. Volume 12, Volume 15 of Darstellungen aus dem Gebiete der nichtchristlichen Religionsgeschichte (illustrated ed.). Aschendorff (Druck und Verlag der Aschendorffschen Buchhandlung). ISBN 0199792054. Retrieved 10 March 2014.
{{cite book}}:|volume=has extra text (help) - Elliott, Mark C. (2001). The Manchu Way: The Eight Banners and Ethnic Identity in Late Imperial China. Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-4684-2.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Gorelova, Liliya M., ed. (2002). Handbook of Oriental Studies. Section 8 Uralic & Central Asian Studies, Manchu Grammar. Vol. Volume Seven Manchu Grammar. Brill Academic Pub. ISBN 9004123075. Retrieved 6 May 2014.
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- Hauer, Erich (2007). Corff, Oliver (ed.). Handwörterbuch der Mandschusprache. Vol. Volume 12, Volume 15 of Darstellungen aus dem Gebiete der nichtchristlichen Religionsgeschichte (illustrated ed.). Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. ISBN 3447055286. Retrieved 10 March 2014.
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{{cite book}}:|volume=has extra text (help) - Lee, Robert H. G. (1970). The Manchurian Frontier in Chʼing History. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-54775-9.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Merriam-Webster, Inc (2003). Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary. Merriam-Webster. ISBN 978-0-87779-807-1.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Mote, Frederick W.; Twitchett, Denis; Fairbank, John K., eds. (1988). The Cambridge History of China: Volume 7, The Ming Dynasty, 1368-1644 (illustrated ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521243327. Retrieved 10 March 2014.
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{{cite journal}}:|number=has extra text (help) - "New Light on The Origins of The Manchuslast=Huang". Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies. Harvard-Yenching Institute. 50 (No. 1): 239–282. Jun 1990. doi:10.2307/2719229. JSTOR 2719229.
{{cite journal}}:|first=missing|last=(help);|number=has extra text (help) - Perdue, Peter C (2009). China Marches West: The Qing Conquest of Central Eurasia (reprint ed.). Harvard University Press. ISBN 0674042026. Retrieved 10 March 2014.
- Peterson, Willard J. (2002). the Cambridge History of China, the Ch'ing dynasty to 1800. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-24334-3.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Rawski, Evelyn S. (Nov 1996). "Presidential Address: Reenvisioning the Qing: The Significance of the Qing Period in Chinese History". The Journal of Asian Studies. Association for Asian Studies. 55 (No. 4): 829–850. doi:10.2307/2646525. JSTOR 2646525.
{{cite journal}}:|number=has extra text (help) - Reardon-Anderson, James (Oct 2000). "Land Use and Society in Manchuria and Inner Mongolia during the Qing Dynasty". Environmental History. Forest History Society and American Society for Environmental History. 5 (No. 4): 503–530. JSTOR 3985584.
{{cite journal}}:|number=has extra text (help) - Rhoads, Edward J. M. (2000). Manchus and Han: Ethnic Relations and Political Power in Late Qing and Early Republican China, 1861–1928. University of Washington Press. ISBN 0-295-98040-0.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Rhoads, Edward J. M. (2011). Manchus and Han: Ethnic Relations and Political Power in Late Qing and Early Republican China, 1861–1928. University of Washington Press. ISBN 0295804122. Retrieved 10 March 2014.
- Serruys, Henry (1955). Sino-J̌ürčed relations during the Yung-Lo period, 1403-1424. Vol. Volume 4 of Göttinger asiatische Forschungen. O. Harrassowitz. ISBN 0742540057. Retrieved 10 March 2014.
{{cite book}}:|volume=has extra text (help) - Seth, Michael J. (2006). A Concise History of Korea: From the Neolithic Period Through the Nineteenth Century. Vol. Volume 2 of Tunguso Sibirica (illustrated, annotated ed.). Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 0742540057. Retrieved 10 March 2014.
{{cite book}}:|volume=has extra text (help) - Seth, Michael J. (2010). A History of Korea: From Antiquity to the Present. Vol. Volume 2 of Tunguso Sibirica. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. ISBN 0742567176. Retrieved 10 March 2014.
{{cite book}}:|volume=has extra text (help) - Shirokogorov, Sergeĭ Mikhaĭlovich (1924). Social Organization of the Manchus: A study of the Manchu Clan Organization. Vol. Volume 3 of Publications (Royal Asiatic Society. North China Branch). Royal Asiatic Society.
{{cite book}}:|volume=has extra text (help); Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Sinor, Denis, ed. (1990). The Cambridge History of Early Inner Asia, Volume 1 (illustrated, reprint ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521243041. Retrieved 10 March 2014.
- Spence, Jonathan D.; Wills, Jr., John E., eds. (1979). From Ming to Ch'ing: Conquest, Region, and Continuity in Seventeenth-century China (illustrated, revised ed.). Yale University Press. ISBN 0300026722. Retrieved 10 March 2014.
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{{cite book}}:|volume=has extra text (help) - Tamanoi, Mariko Asano (May 2000). "Knowledge, Power, and Racial Classification: The "Japanese" in "Manchuria"". The Journal of Asian Studies. Association for Asian Studies. 59 (No. 2): 248–276. doi:10.2307/2658656. JSTOR 2658656.
{{cite journal}}:|number=has extra text (help) - Taveirne, Patrick (2004). Han-Mongol Encounters and Missionary Endeavors: A History of Scheut in Ordos (Hetao) 1874-1911. Vol. Volume 15 of Louvain Chinese studies (illustrated ed.). Leuven University Press. ISBN 9058673650. Retrieved 10 March 2014.
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- Twitchett, Denis C.; Franke, Herbert; Fairbank, John King, eds. (1994). The Cambridge History of China: Volume 6, Alien Regimes and Border States, 710-1368 (illustrated, reprint ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521243319. Retrieved 10 March 2014.
- Twitchett, Denis C.; Mote, Frederick W., eds. (1998). The Cambridge History of China: Volume 8, The Ming Dynasty, Part 2; Parts 1368-1644. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521243335. Retrieved 10 March 2014.
- Vajda, E. J. "Manchu (Jurchen)". Pandora Web Space (Western Washington University). Professor Edward Vajda. Retrieved 16 February 2014.
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بالمانچوية
- Dekdengge; Zhang, Huake; Guang, Dingyuan (2007). ᠨᡳᡧᠠᠨ
ᠰᠠᠮᠠᠨ
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ᠶᠣᠣᠨᡳ
ᠪᡳᡨᡥᡝ (Full Edition of Tale of the Nisan Shaman). Yingyu Cultural Publishing House. ISBN 9789868212428.{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help); zero width joiner character in|title=at position 372 (help)
قراءات إضافية
- Crossley, Pamela Kyle (1991). Orphan Warriors: Three Manchu Generations and the End of the Qing World. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-00877-9.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Rawski, Evelyn S. (2001). The Last Emperors: A Social History of Qing Imperial Institutions. University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-22837-5.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Shao, Dan (2011). Remote Homeland, Recovered Borderland: Manchus, Manchoukuo, and Manchuria, 1907-1985. University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0824834456.
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وصلات خارجية
