جبل إڤرست
جبل إڤِرست ( Mount Everest ؛ ويُعرَف بالنـِپالي بإسم Sagarmāthā[أ], in Sherpa as Chamolangma[4], and in Tibetan as Jomolangma/Čhomolangma[ب]) هو أعلى جبل على وجه الأرض فوق سطح البحر. ويقع في السلسلة الجزئية ماهالانگور هيمال ضمن سلسلة جبال الهيمالايا ويشكل جزءاً من حدود الصين-نـِپال عند قمته.[5] Its height was most recently measured in 2020 through a joint survey by Nepalese and Chinese authorities as 8،848.86 m (29،031 ft 8+1⁄2 in).[6][7]
يختلف المسّاحون فيما بينهم على الارتفاع الصحيح لجبل إيفرست. وقد جاء في تقرير خاص ببعثة بريطانية قامت بمسح هذا الجبل في أوائل القرن التاسع عشر، أنّ ارتفاع الجبل 8,848م، ولكن التقدير غير الرسمي الشائع لارتفاع الجبل هو 8,882م. وقد سمّي هذا الجبل باسم السير جورج إيفرست (1790-1866م) وهو مدير عام المساحة في الهند. ويطلق سكان التيبت على هذا الجبل اسم شومولونجما. ويسميه مواطنو نيبال ساجارماثا. وهو من الجبال الحديثة العمر من الناحية الجيولوجية. وقد تشكل هذا الجبل من طبقات الحجر الجيري، التي مازالت تندفع ببطء إلى أعلى بسبب تحرّكات الكتلة الأرضية أسفلها. وتغطي طبقات الثلوج جوانب هذا الجبل، على الرغم من أن قممه وحوافه خالية من الثلوج بسبب شدة الرياح التي تهب عليها، علمًا بأن الظروف المناخية المحيطة بالجبل غير مواتية على الإطلاق للحياة النباتية والحيوانية.
Mount Everest attracts many climbers, including highly experienced mountaineers. There are two main climbing routes, one approaching the summit from the southeast in Nepal (known as the standard route) and the other from the north in China. While not posing substantial technical climbing challenges on the standard route, Everest presents dangers such as altitude sickness, weather, and wind, as well as hazards from avalanches and the Khumbu Icefall. As of May 2024, 340 people have died on Everest. Over 200 bodies remain on the mountain and have not been removed due to the dangerous conditions.[8][9]
Climbers typically ascend only part of Mount Everest's elevation, as the mountain's full elevation is measured from the geoid, which approximates sea level. The closest sea to Mount Everest's summit is the Bay of Bengal, almost 700 km (430 mi) away. To approximate a climb of the entire height of Mount Everest, one would need to start from this coastline, a feat accomplished by Tim Macartney-Snape's team in 1990. Climbers usually begin their ascent from base camps above 5،000 m (16،404 ft). The amount of elevation climbed from below these camps varies. On the Tibetan side, most climbers drive directly to the North Base Camp. On the Nepalese side, climbers generally fly into Kathmandu, then Lukla, and trek to the South Base Camp, making the climb from Lukla to the summit about 6،000 m (20،000 ft) in elevation gain.
The first recorded efforts to reach Everest's summit were made by British mountaineers. As Nepal did not allow foreigners to enter the country at the time, the British made several attempts on the North Ridge route from the Tibetan side. After the first reconnaissance expedition by the British in 1921 reached 7،000 m (22،966 ft) on the North Col, the 1922 expedition on its first summit attempt marked the first time a human had climbed above 8،000 m (26،247 ft) and it also pushed the North Ridge route up to 8،321 m (27،300 ft). On the 1924 expedition, George Mallory and Andrew Irvine made a final summit attempt on 8 June but never returned, leading to debate as to whether they were the first to reach the top. Tenzing Norgay and Edmund Hillary made the first documented ascent of Everest in 1953, using the Southeast Ridge route. Norgay had reached 8،595 m (28،199 ft) the previous year as a member of the 1952 Swiss expedition. The Chinese mountaineering team of Wang Fuzhou, Gonpo, and Qu Yinhua made the first reported ascent of the peak from the North Ridge on 25 May 1960.[10]
الاسم
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Mount Everest's Nepali name is सगरमाथा = Sagarmāthā (in IAST transcription), pronounced [sʌɡʌrmatʰa], lit. ''head in the sky'' (loosely translated as "goddess of the sky"[11]).[12]
The Tibetan name for Everest is Qomolangma (ཇོ་མོ་གླང་མ, lit. "holy mother"). The name was first recorded (in a Chinese transcription) in the 1721 Kangxi Atlas, issued during the reign of Qing Emperor Kangxi; it first appeared in the West in 1733 as Tchoumour Lancma, on a map prepared by the French geographer D'Anville based on the Kangxi Atlas.[13] The Tibetan name is also popularly romanised as Chomolungma and (in Wylie) as Jo-mo-glang-ma.[18]
The official Chinese transcription is 珠穆朗玛峰 (t 珠穆朗瑪峰), or Zhūmùlǎngmǎ Fēng in pinyin. It is a phonetic transcription of the Tibetan name into Standard Mandarin. While other Chinese names have been used historically, including Shèngmǔ Fēng (t 聖母峰, s 圣母峰, lit. "holy mother peak"), these names were largely phased out after the Chinese Ministry of Internal Affairs issued a decree to adopt a sole name in May 1952.[19]
The British geographic survey of 1849 attempted to preserve local names when possible (e.g., Kangchenjunga and Dhaulagiri). However, Andrew Waugh, the British Surveyor General of India, claimed that he could not find a commonly used local name, and that his search for one had been hampered by the Nepalese and Tibetan policy of exclusion of foreigners. Waugh argued that – because there were many local names – it would be difficult to favour one name over all others; he therefore decided that Peak XV should be named after British surveyor Sir George Everest, his predecessor as Surveyor General of India.[20][21][22] Everest himself opposed the honour, and told the Royal Geographical Society in 1857 that "Everest" could neither be written in Hindi nor pronounced by "the native of India". Despite Everest's objections, Waugh's proposed name prevailed, and the Royal Geographical Society officially adopted the name "Mount Everest" in 1865.[20][23] The modern pronunciation of Everest (/ˈɛvərɪst/)[24] is different from Sir George's pronunciation of his surname (/ˈiːvrɪst/ EEV-rist).[25]
In the late 19th century, many European cartographers incorrectly believed that a native name for the mountain was Gaurishankar, a mountain between Kathmandu and Everest.[26]
أسماء أخرى
- "Peak XV" (temporary, assigned by British Imperial Survey)[20][21][22]
- "Deodungha"[27] (Old Darjeeling)
- "Gauri Shankar", "Gaurishankar", or "Gaurisankar" (misattribution; used occasionally until about 1900. In modern times the name is used for a different peak about 30 ميل (48 كيلومتر) away.[28])
المسح
القرن 19
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في عام 1802، بدأ البريطانيون مسح المثلثية العظمى في الهند لتحديد الموقع وأسماء من أعلى الجبال في العالم. بدءا في جنوب الهند، وانتقلت فرق المسح شمالا باستخدام العملاقة المزواة ، كل واحدة تزن500 كج[convert: unknown unit] وتتطلب 12 رجلا لحملها، لقياس ارتفاعات بأكبر قدر ممكن. وصلوا إلى سفوح جبال الهيمالايا حوالى العام 1830 ولكن كانت نيبال غير راغبة في السماح للبريطانيين بدخول البلاد بسبب الشكوك من العدوان السياسي واحتمال الضم. تحولت عدة طلبات من قبل المساحين لدخول نيبال إلى الرفض.[20] اضطر البريطانيون إلى مواصلة ملاحظاتهم من تيراي ، وهي منطقة في جنوب نيبال التي هي موازية لجبال الهيمالايا. كانت الظروف في تيراي صعبة بسبب الأمطار الغزيرة وتفشى الملاريا. توفي ثلاثة ضباط منالإصابة بالملاريا في حين أن اثنين آخرين آثروا التقاعد بسبب تردي حالتهم الصحية.[20] ومع ذلك، في عام 1847، واصل البريطاني المسح المثلثى العظيم وبدأ ملاحظات تفصيلية من قمم جبال الهيمالايا من محطات المراقبة يصل إلى 240 كم[convert: unknown unit] بعيدا. الطقس محدود العمل مع الأشهر الثلاثة الأخيرة من السنة. في نوفمبر تشرين الثاني عام 1847، أندرو وو, البريطانيون المساح العام من الهند قدم عدة ملاحظات من Sawajpore محطة تقع في الطرف الشرقي من جبال الهيمالايا. Kangchenjunga ثم يعتبر أعلى قمة في العالم, وباهتمام أشار إلى ذروة أبعد من ذلك، معلومات عن 230 كم[convert: unknown unit] بعيدا. رأى جون ارمسترونغ، واحد من المسؤولين وو، وأيضا ذروة من موقع أبعد الغربية ويطلق عليه الذروة "ب". وو سيكتب لاحقا أن هذه الملاحظات تشير إلى أن ذروة "ب" كان أعلى من جبل كانغشينجونغا، ولكن نظرا للمسافة كبيرة من الملاحظات، كان مطلوبا الملاحظات أقرب للتحقق. في العام التالي، أرسل وو مسؤول المسح مرة أخرى إلى تيراي لجعل الملاحظات أقرب من ذروة "ب"، ولكن السحب أحبطت جميع المحاولاتs.[20]
وقد قاد نورمان. ج. ديهرنفورس بعثة تسلق أمريكية لتسلق جبل إيفرست عام 1963م. وفي الأول من مايو تمكن اثنان من أفراد البعثة، وهما توماس هورنباين ووليم ف إنسولد، من تسلق الجبل من الجانب الغربي الصعب، وهما أول من تمكن من تحقيق هذا الإنجاز، حيث وصلا إلى القمة في 22 مايو.
وتمكّن دوجال هاستون ودوج سكوت من تسلق الجبل، والوصول إلى قمّته من الجانب الجنوبي الغربي، وهما أول من تمكن من تحقيق هذا الإنجاز، وكانا ضمن بعثة تسلق بريطانية. وفي 10 مايو عام 1980م نجح اثنان من أعضاء بعثة تسلق يابانية، وهما تاكاشي أوزاكي وتسونيو شيجيهيرو، من تسلق الجبل من الجانب الشمالي، وهما أول من تمكّن من تحقيق هذا الإنجاز.
ووصلت بعثتا تسلق إلى جبل إيفرست من جانبين للمرة الأولى في 5 مايو 1988م.وتكوّن أعضاء بعثتي التسلق من يابانيين وصينيين ونيباليين. وبدأ فريق تسلق، مكون من ثلاثة أفراد، مهمته من نيبال، وشرع في تسلق الجبل من الجانب الجنوبي، كما بدأ فريق تسلق مكون من ثمانية أفراد تسلق الجبل من الجانب الشمالي في التيبت. وَيدَّعى أفراد قبائل الشربا بأن هناك مخلوقًا يدعى يتى أو رجل الجليد المرعب يقيم في المنطقة المحيطة بجبل إيفرست، إلا أن متسلقي الجبل لم يشاهدوا هذا المخلوق.
بعثات الإستكشاف الأولى
في عام 1885، كلينتون توماس دنت ، رئيس نادي جبال الألب (UK ، اقترح في كتابه فوق خط الثلج أن تسلق جبل ايفرست كان ممكنا .[29]
القرن العشرون
تم اكتشاف السكة الشمالية إلى الجبل حيث جورج مالوري و غي بولوك كانوا الأوائل بعثة الاستطلاع البريطانية 1921. كانت رحلة استكشافية استطلاعية ليست مجهزة لمحاولة جادة لتسلق الجبل. مع الرائد مالوري (وبالتالي أصبح أول أوروبي يضع قدمه على أجنحة ايفرست) أنهم تسلقوا الطرف الشمالي الى ارتفاع 7،005 ميل[convert: unknown unit].من هناك، espied وإقترح مالوري طريقا إلى الأعلى، ولكن لم يكن الفريق مستعدا للقيام بهذه المهمة العظيمة من التسلق إلى أبعد من ذلك ونزلوا منسحبين. عاد البريطانيون لبعثة 1922 . جورج فينش (الكيميائي) (" جورج الآخر") صعد متسلقا وهو قد إستخدام الأوكسجين للمرة الأولى. صعد بسرعة ملحوظة—290 ميل[convert: unknown unit] في الساعة، ووصل ارتفاع8،320 ميل[convert: unknown unit],في المرة الأولى تسلق الإنسان أعلى من 8،000 متر. فقد هذا العمل الفذ كليا على تسلق البريطانية إنشاء ما عدا بسبب "غير رياضي" الطبيعة. مالوري و العقيد فيليكس نورتون قام بمحاولة فاشلة الثاني. وقد انتقد مالوري لقيادة الفريق إلى أسفل من العقيد الشمالية التي حوصرت في انهيار جليدي. تم سحب مالوري أسفل أيضا، ولكن قتل سبعة من الحمالين الأصليين المرافقين. في كان البعثة المقبلة في عام 1924 تم إحباط محاولة أولية من قبل مالوري وبروس عندما منعت الأحوال الجوية إقامة المعسكر السادس. وكانت المحاولة التالية التي من نورتون وSomervell، الذي صعد دون الأكسجين والطقس مثاليا، عابرا وجه الشمال إلى ممر ضيق عظيم. تمكنت نورتون لتصل إلى8،550 متر[convert: unknown unit],على الرغم من أنه صعد فقط 30 متر[convert: unknown unit] or so in the ساعة الماضية. مالوري اختطفوهم حتى أجهزة الأوكسجين لمحاولة أخيرة. وقال انه اختار الشباب اندرو ايرفين كشريك له.
يوم 8 يونيو عام 1924، جورج مالوري و اندرو إيرفين (متسلق الجبال) أجريا محاولة الصعود على القمة عبر الشمال / شمال ريدج / شمال شرق ريدج الطريق من التي لم يعودوا أبدا. يوم 1 مايو 1999، مالوري وايرفين الباحثين بالبعثة عثرا على جثة مالوري على الوجه الشمالي في حوض ثلج أسفل وإلى الغرب من الموقع التقليدي للمعسكر السادس. احتدم الجدل في مجتمع تسلق الجبال ما إذا كان أحدهما أو كلاهما قد وصلوا إلى القمة قبل 29 سنوات من الصعود وأكد (وبطبيعة الحال، أصل آمن) من ايفرست من قبل السير إدموند هيلاري و تنزينج نورجاي في عام 1953 . في عام 1933، هيوستن سيدة، مليونيرة بريطانية، مولت هيوستن ايفرست الطيران لعام 1933، التي شهدت تشكيل الطائرات من قبل الصمام في المركيز من كليديسدال تطير فوق قمة في محاولة لنشر بريطانية علم الاتحاد في الجزء العلوي.[30][31][32]
Early expeditions—such as Bruce's in the 1920s and Hugh Ruttledge's two unsuccessful attempts in 1933 and 1936—tried to make an ascent of the mountain from Tibet, via the north face. Access was closed from the north to western expeditions in 1950, after the Chinese asserted control over Tibet. In 1950, Bill Tilman and a small party which included Charles Houston, Oscar Houston and Betsy Cowles undertook an exploratory expedition to Everest through Nepal along the route which has now become the standard approach to Everest from the south.[33]
The Swiss expedition of 1952, led by Edouard Wyss-Dunant, was granted permission to attempt a climb from Nepal. The expedition established a route through the Khumbu ice fall and ascended to the South Col at an elevation of 7،986 m (26،201 ft). No attempt at an ascent of Everest was ever under consideration in this case.[34] Raymond Lambert and Sherpa Tenzing Norgay were able to reach a height of about 8،595 m (28،199 ft) on the southeast ridge, setting a new climbing altitude record. Tenzing's experience was useful when he was hired to be part of the British expedition in 1953.[35]
First successful ascent by Tenzing and Hillary
In 1953, a ninth British expedition, led by John Hunt, returned to Nepal. Hunt selected two climbing pairs to attempt to reach the summit. The first pair (Tom Bourdillon and Charles Evans) came within 100 m (330 ft) of the summit on 26 May 1953, but turned back after running into oxygen problems. As planned, their work in route finding and breaking trail and their caches of extra oxygen were of great aid to the following pair. Two days later, the expedition made its second and final assault on the summit with its second climbing pair, the New Zealander Edmund Hillary and Tenzing Norgay, a Nepali sherpa climber from Darjeeling, India. They reached the summit at 11:30 am local time on 29 May 1953 via the South Col Route. At the time, both acknowledged it as a team effort by the whole expedition, but Tenzing revealed a few years later that Hillary had put his foot on the summit first.[36] They paused at the summit to take photographs and buried a few sweets and a small cross in the snow before descending.
News of the expedition's success reached London on the morning of Queen Elizabeth II's coronation, 2 June. Returning to Kathmandu a few days later, Hunt (a Briton) and Hillary (a New Zealander) discovered that they had been promptly knighted in the Order of the British Empire, a KBE, for the ascent. Tenzing, a Nepali sherpa who was a citizen of India, was granted the George Medal by the UK. Hunt was ultimately made a life peer in Britain, while Hillary became a founding member of the Order of New Zealand. Hillary and Tenzing are also nationally recognized in Nepal, where annual ceremonies in schools and offices celebrate their accomplishment.[37]
مقارنات
The summit of Everest is the point at which Earth's surface reaches the greatest distance above sea level. Several other mountains are sometimes claimed to be the "tallest mountains on Earth". Mauna Kea in Hawaii is tallest when measured from its base;[note 5] it rises over 10،200 m (33،464.6 ft) from its base on the mid-ocean floor, but only attains 4،205 m (13،796 ft) above sea level.
By the same measure of base to summit, Denali (also called Mount McKinley) in Alaska is taller than Everest as well.[note 5] Despite its height above sea level of only 6،190 m (20،308 ft), Denali sits atop a sloping plain with elevations from 300 إلى 900 m (980 إلى 2،950 ft), yielding a height above base in the range of 5،300 إلى 5،900 m (17،400 إلى 19،400 ft); a commonly quoted figure is 5،600 m (18،400 ft).[38][39] By comparison, reasonable base elevations for Everest range from 4،200 m (13،800 ft) on the south side to 5،200 m (17،100 ft) on the Tibetan Plateau, yielding a height above base in the range of 3،650 إلى 4،650 m (11،980 إلى 15،260 ft).[40]
The summit of Chimborazo in Ecuador is 2،168 m (7،113 ft) farther from Earth's centre (6،384.4 km أو 3،967.1 mi) than that of Everest (6،382.3 km، 3،965.8 mi), because the Earth bulges at the equator.[41] This is despite Chimborazo having a peak of 6،268 m (20،564.3 ft) above sea level versus Mount Everest's 8،848 m (29،028.9 ft).
السياق والخرائط
Many of the highest mountains in the world are near Mount Everest, for example Lhotse, 8،516 m (27،940 ft); Nuptse, 7،855 m (25،771 ft), Changtse, 7،580 m (24،870 ft) and Khumbutse, 6،636 m (21،772 ft). On the southwest side, a major feature in the lower areas is the Khumbu icefall and glacier, an obstacle to climbers on those routes but also to the base camps. قالب:Himalaya annotated imagemap
الجيولوجيا
Geologists have subdivided the rocks comprising Mount Everest into three units called formations.[42][43] Each formation is separated from the other by low-angle faults, called detachments, along which they have been thrust southward over each other. From the summit of Mount Everest to its base these rock units are the Qomolangma Formation, the North Col Formation, and the Rongbuk Formation.
The Qomolangma Formation, also known as the Jolmo Lungama Formation,[44] runs from the summit to the top of the Yellow Band, about 8،600 m (28،200 ft) above sea level. It consists of greyish to dark grey or white, parallel laminated and bedded, Ordovician limestone interlayered with subordinate beds of recrystallised dolomite with argillaceous laminae and siltstone. Gansser first reported finding microscopic fragments of crinoids in this limestone.[45][46] Later petrographic analysis of samples of the limestone from near the summit revealed them to be composed of carbonate pellets and finely fragmented remains of trilobites, crinoids, and ostracods. Other samples were so badly sheared and recrystallised that their original constituents could not be determined. A thick, white-weathering thrombolite bed that is 60 m (200 ft) thick comprises the foot of the "Third Step", and base of the summit pyramid of Everest. This bed, which crops out starting about 70 m (230 ft) below the summit of Mount Everest, consists of sediments trapped, bound, and cemented by the biofilms of micro-organisms, especially cyanobacteria, in shallow marine waters. The Qomolangma Formation is broken up by several high-angle faults that terminate at the low angle normal fault, the Qomolangma Detachment. This detachment separates it from the underlying Yellow Band. The lower five metres of the Qomolangma Formation overlying this detachment are very highly deformed.[42][43][47]
The bulk of Mount Everest, between 7،000 و 8،600 m (23،000 و 28،200 ft), consists of the North Col Formation, of which the Yellow Band forms the upper part between 8،200 إلى 8،600 m (26،900 إلى 28،200 ft). The Yellow Band consists of intercalated beds of Middle Cambrian diopside-epidote-bearing marble, which weathers a distinctive yellowish brown, and muscovite-biotite phyllite and semischist. Petrographic analysis of marble collected from about 8،300 m (27،200 ft) found it to consist as much as five per cent of the ghosts of recrystallised crinoid ossicles. The upper five metres of the Yellow Band lying adjacent to the Qomolangma Detachment is badly deformed. A 5–40 cm (2.0–15.7 in) thick fault breccia separates it from the overlying Qomolangma Formation.[42][43][47]
The remainder of the North Col Formation, exposed between 7،000 إلى 8،200 m (23،000 إلى 26،900 ft) on Mount Everest, consists of interlayered and deformed schist, phyllite, and minor marble. Between 7،600 و 8،200 m (24،900 و 26،900 ft), the North Col Formation consists chiefly of biotite-quartz phyllite and chlorite-biotite phyllite intercalated with minor amounts of biotite-sericite-quartz schist. Between 7،000 و 7،600 m (23،000 و 24،900 ft), the lower part of the North Col Formation consists of biotite-quartz schist intercalated with epidote-quartz schist, biotite-calcite-quartz schist, and thin layers of quartzose marble. These metamorphic rocks appear to be the result of the metamorphism of Middle to Early Cambrian deep sea flysch composed of interbedded, mudstone, shale, clayey sandstone, calcareous sandstone, graywacke, and sandy limestone. The base of the North Col Formation is a regional low-angle normal fault called the "Lhotse detachment".[42][43][47]
Below 7,000 m (23,000 ft), the Rongbuk Formation underlies the North Col Formation and forms the base of Mount Everest. It consists of sillimanite-K-feldspar grade schist and gneiss intruded by numerous sills and dikes of leucogranite ranging in thickness from 1 cm to 1,500 m (0.4 in to 4,900 ft).[43][48] These leucogranites are part of a belt of Late Oligocene–Miocene intrusive rocks known as the Higher Himalayan leucogranite. They formed as the result of partial melting of Paleoproterozoic to Ordovician high-grade metasedimentary rocks of the Higher Himalayan Sequence about 20 to 24 million years ago during the subduction of the Indian Plate.[49]
Mount Everest consists of sedimentary and metamorphic rocks that have been faulted southward over continental crust composed of Archean granulites of the Indian Plate during the Cenozoic collision of India with Asia.[50][51][52] Current interpretations argue that the Qomolangma and North Col formations consist of marine sediments that accumulated within the continental shelf of the northern passive continental margin of India before it collided with Asia. The Cenozoic collision of India with Asia subsequently deformed and metamorphosed these strata as it thrust them southward and upward.[53][54] The Rongbuk Formation consists of a sequence of high-grade metamorphic and granitic rocks that were derived from the alteration of high-grade metasedimentary rocks. During the collision of India with Asia, these rocks were thrust downward and to the north as they were overridden by other strata; heated, metamorphosed, and partially melted at depths of over 15 إلى 20 كيلومتر (9.3 إلى 12.4 mi) below sea level; and then forced upward to surface by thrusting towards the south between two major detachments.[55] Mount Everest is rising by about 2 mm per year.[56]
IUGS geological heritage site
In respect of the recognition of the "highest rocks on the planet" as fossiliferous, marine limestone, the Ordovician Rocks of Mount Everest were included by the International Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS) in its assemblage of 100 geological heritage sites around the world in a listing published in October 2022. The organisation defines an IUGS Geological Heritage Site as "a key place with geological elements and/or processes of international scientific relevance, used as a reference, and/or with a substantial contribution to the development of geological sciences through history."[57]
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النبيت والوحيش
There is very little native flora or fauna on Everest. A type of moss grows at 6،480 متر (21،260 ft) on Mount Everest and it may be the highest altitude plant species.[58] An alpine cushion plant called Arenaria is known to grow below 5،500 متر (18،000 ft) in the region.[59] According to the study based on satellite data from 1993 to 2018, vegetation is expanding in the Everest region. Researchers have found plants in areas that were previously deemed bare.[60]
A minute species of black jumping spider, Euophrys omnisuperstes, has been found at elevations as high as 6،700 متر (22،000 ft),[61] possibly making it the highest confirmed non-microscopic permanent resident on Earth. Another Euophrys species, E. everestensis, has been found at 5،030 متر (16،500 ft), and may feed on insects that have been blown there by the wind.[61] There is a high likelihood of microscopic life at even higher altitudes.
The bar-headed goose migrates over the Himalayas and have been seen flying at the higher altitudes of the mountain.[62] In 1953, George Lowe (part of the expedition of Tenzing and Hillary) said that he saw bar-headed geese flying over Everest's summit.[63] Another bird species, the chough, have been spotted as high as the South Col at 7،906 m (25،938 ft)[64] and yellow-billed choughs have been seen as high as 7،900 m (25،919 ft).[62]
Yaks are often used to haul gear for Mount Everest climbs. They can haul around 100 kg (220 pounds), have thick fur and large lungs.[59] Other animals in the region include the Himalayan tahr, which is sometimes the prey of the snow leopard.[65] The Himalayan black bear can be found up to about 4،300 متر (14،000 ft) and the red panda is also present in the region.[66] One expedition found a surprising range of species in the region including a pika and ten new species of ants.[67]
الحفاظ
On the Nepalese side, Everest is protected as part of Sagarmatha National Park,[68] while on the Chinese side the mountain is protected as part of Qomolangma National Nature Reserve.[69]
المناخ
Mount Everest has an ice cap climate (Köppen EF) with all months averaging well below freezing.[note 6]
| بيانات المناخ لـ Mount Everest (Summit) | |||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| الشهر | ينا | فب | مار | أبر | ماي | يون | يول | أغس | سبت | أكت | نوف | ديس | السنة |
| متوسط الدنيا °س (°ف) | −36 (−33) |
−35 (−31) |
−32 (−26) |
−31 (−24) |
−25 (−13) |
−20 (−4) |
−18 (0) |
−18 (0) |
−21 (−6) |
−27 (−17) |
−30 (−22) |
−34 (−29) |
−36 (−33) |
| Source: [70] | |||||||||||||
التغير المناخي
The base camp for Everest expeditions based out of Nepal is located by Khumbu Glacier, which is rapidly thinning and destabilizing due to climate change, making it unsafe for climbers. As recommended by the committee formed by Nepal's government to facilitate and monitor mountaineering in the Everest region, Taranath Adhikari—the director general of Nepal's tourism department—said they have plans to move the base camp to a lower altitude. This would mean a longer distance for climbers between the base camp and Camp 1. Although officials had initially stated that the move might happen by 2024,[71] resistance from the climbing and Sherpa communities resulted in the move being put on hold, in part because there is no viable alternative camp location that would allow climbers to pass through the icefall in the safer early morning hours.[72]
الأرصاد الجوية
| Atmospheric pressure comparison | الضغط | Reference | |
|---|---|---|---|
| kilopascal | psi | ||
| Olympus Mons summit | 0.03 | 0.0044 | – |
| Mars average | 0.6 | 0.087 | – |
| Hellas Planitia bottom | 1.16 | 0.168 | – |
| Armstrong limit | 6.25 | 0.906 | – |
| Mount Everest summit | 33.7 | 4.89 | [73] |
| Earth sea level | 101.3 | 14.69 | – |
| Dead Sea level | 106.7 | 15.48 | [74] |
| Surface of Venus | 9،200 | 1،330 | [75] |
In 2008, a new weather station at about 8،000 m (26،000 ft) elevation went online.[76] The project was orchestrated by Stations at High Altitude for Research on the Environment (SHARE), which also placed the Mount Everest webcam in 2011.[76][77] The solar-powered weather station is on the South Col.[78]
Mount Everest extends into the upper troposphere and penetrates the stratosphere.[79] The air pressure at the summit is generally about one-third what it is at sea level. The altitude can expose the summit to the fast and freezing winds of the jet stream.[80] Winds commonly attain 160 km/h (100 mph);[81] in February 2004, a wind speed of 280 km/h (175 mph) was recorded at the summit.
These winds can hamper or endanger climbers, by blowing them into chasms[81] or (by Bernoulli's principle) by lowering the air pressure further, reducing available oxygen by up to 14 percent.[80][82] To avoid the harshest winds, climbers typically aim for a 7- to 10-day window in the spring and fall when the Asian monsoon season is starting up or ending.
Mount Everest hosts several weather stations that collect important data on high-altitude weather conditions. Among them is the Balcony Station, the highest weather station on the planet, located at about 8،430 متر (27،660 ft) above sea level. Set up by climate scientists Tom Matthews and Baker Perry in 2019, this station is positioned just below the summit of Everest, which is the highest point on Earth.[83]
As of January 20, 2020, the Balcony Station ceased transmitting data.[84]
لماذا يموت المتسلقون على جبل ايفرست
وقد أجرى فريق بحثي دولي بقيادة المحققين بمستشفى ماساتشوستس العام (MGH) أول تحليل مفصل لحالات الوفاة خلال البعثات إلى قمة جبل إيفرست في 15 ديسمبر 2008. . ووجد الباحثون أن معظم الوفيات تحدث أثناء النزول من القمة في ما يسمى ب "منطقة الموت" وهى تلرتفع 8،000 متر والعوامل التي تم تحديدها أيضا التى تظهر لتترافق مع زيادة خطر الموت ، خاصة أعراض الوذمة الدماغية على ارتفاعات عالية.
"ونحن نعلم أن تسلق ايفرست هو أمر خطير، ولكن بالضبط كيف ولماذايموت الناس هو أمر لم تتم دراسته"، ويقول بول فيرث، MB، CHB، من قسم من التخدير بمستشفى MGH الذي قاد الدراسة "كان يفترض أن الانهيارات الثلجية و هبوط الثلج - لا سيما في Icefall خومبو على الطريق نيبال - كانت الأسباب الرئيسية للوفاة وأن الوذمة الرئوية في الارتفاعات العالية تكون مشكلة شائعة في مثل هذه الارتفاعات القصوى، ولكن نتائجنا لا تدعم أيا من الإفتراضين.
وقد حاول آلاف من المتسلقين الوصول الى القمة على إرتفاع 8،850 متر (29،000 قدم) على جبل ايفرست منذ 1920. من أجل دراسة الظروف المحيطة بكل حالة وفاة في رحلات ايفرست، وفريق البحث - الذي ضم باحثين من ثلاثة مستشفيات البريطانية وجامعة تورونتو - مراجعة سجلات الحملة المتاحة بما في ذلك قاعدة البيانات في جبال الهيمالايا، وتجميع للمعلومات من جميع البعثات إلى 300 من القمم الرئيسية في أعلى سلسلة في العالم. من مجموع الوفيات المبلغ عنها 212 على ايفرست 1921-2006، و 192 حالة وقعت فوق قاعدةالمعسكر، ومعسكر آخر قبل بداية التسلق (مشدود) .
فيرث وثلاثةأطباء شاركوا في الكتاب - جميع المتسلقين في جبال الهيمالايا من ذوي الخبرة ة في إدارة المرض على ارتفاعات عالية - مراجعة السجلات لجميع الوفيات وتصنيفها وفقا للمعلومات المتاحة. أجري تحليل أكثر تفصيلا عن الوفيات التي حدثت على إرتفاع 8،000 متر خلال السنوات ال 25 الماضية. وصنفت حالة وفاة الصدمة، من السقوط أو الأخطار الخارجية مثل الانهيارات الثلجية؛ nontraumatic، من المرض على ارتفاعات عالية، انخفاض حرارة الجسم أو أسباب طبية أخرى، أو حالات الاختفاء. تم تصنيف المشاركين إكسبيديشن إما 'المتسلقين،' الأفراد من خارج منطقة الهيمالايا، أو 'الشيربا' - الحمالين على ارتفاعات عالية، ومعظمهم من عرق الشيربا أو التبتيين، وظفت لنقل المعدات وخلاف ذلك، بمساعدة المتسلقين.
كان معدل الوفيات الإجمالي لمتسلقي الجبال ايفرست خلال كامل فترة 86 سنوات 1.3 في المئة، وكان المعدل بين المتسلقين 1.6 في المئة وكان معدل بين الشيربا 1.1 في المئة. خلال السنوات ال 25 الماضية، كانت فترة خلالها نسبة أكبر من moutaineers ارتفع فوق 8،000 متر معدل الوفيات للمتسلقين غير الهيمالايا تنازلي عن طريق أطول التبت شمال شرق ريدج 3.4 في المئة، بينما على أقصر نيبال المسار كان 2.5 في المئة.
الطيران
1933: الطيران فوق إڤرست
Lucy, Lady Houston, a British millionaire former showgirl, funded the Houston Everest Flight of 1933. A formation of airplanes led by the Marquess of Clydesdale flew over the summit in an effort to photograph the unknown terrain.[30]
1988: First climb and glide
On 26 September 1988, having climbed the mountain via the Southeast Ridge, Jean-Marc Boivin made the first paraglider descent of Everest,[85] in the process creating the record for the fastest descent of the mountain and the highest paraglider flight. Boivin said: "I was tired when I reached the top because I had broken much of the trail, and to run at this altitude was quite hard."[86]
1991: Hot air balloon flyover
In 1991, four men in two balloons achieved the first hot-air balloon flight over Mount Everest.[87] In one balloon were Andy Elson and Eric Jones (cameraman), and in the other balloon Chris Dewhirst and Leo Dickinson (cameraman).[88] Dickinson went on to write a book about the adventure called Ballooning Over Everest.[88] The hot-air balloons were modified to function at up to 12،000 m (40،000 ft) altitude.[88] Reinhold Messner called one of Dickinson's panoramic views of Everest, captured on the now discontinued Kodak Kodachrome film, the "best snap on Earth", according to UK newspaper The Telegraph.[89] Dewhirst has offered to take passengers on a repeat of this feat for US$2.6 million per passenger.[87]
2005: Pilot summits with helicopter
In May 2005, pilot Didier Delsalle of France landed a Eurocopter AS350 B3 helicopter on the summit of Mount Everest.[90] He needed to land for two minutes to set the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale (FAI) official record, but he stayed for about four minutes, twice.[90] In this type of landing the rotors stay engaged, which avoids relying on the snow to fully support the aircraft. The flight set rotorcraft world records, for highest of both landing and take-off.[91]
Some press reports suggested that the report of the summit landing was a misunderstanding of a South Col landing, but he had also landed on South Col two days earlier,[92] with this landing and the Everest records confirmed by the FAI.[91] Delsalle also rescued two Japanese climbers at 4،880 m (16،000 ft) while he was there. One climber noted that the new record meant a better chance of rescue.[90]
2011: Paraglide off summit
On 21 May 2011, Nepalis Lakpa Tsheri Sherpa and Sano Babu Sunuwar paraglided from Everest's summit to Namche Bazaar in 42 minutes.[93][94] After the flight they hiked, biked, and kayaked to the Indian Ocean, reaching the Bay of Bengal by 27 June 2011, thereby becoming the first people to complete a continuous summit-to-sea descent from Everest.[95] They accomplished the ground-breaking feat despite Babu having never previously climbed, and Lakpa having never kayaked and not even knowing how to swim.[95] The duo subsequently won National Geographic Adventurers of the Year for 2012 for their exploits.[95] In 2013 footage of the flight was shown on the television news program Nightline.[96]
2014: Helicopter-assisted ascent
In 2014, a team financed and led by mountaineer Wang Jing used a helicopter to fly from South Base Camp to Camp II to avoid the Khumbu Icefall, and thence climbed to the Everest summit.[97] This climb immediately sparked outrage and controversy in much of the mountaineering world over the legitimacy and propriety of her climb.[98][99] Nepal ended up investigating Wang, who initially denied the claim that she had flown to Camp II, admitting only that some support crew were flown to that higher camp, over the Khumbu Icefall.[100] In August 2014, however, she stated that she had flown to Camp II because the icefall was impassable. "If you don't fly to Camp II, you just go home", she said in an interview. In that same interview, she also insisted that she had never tried to hide this fact.[98]
Her team had had to use the south side because the Chinese had denied them a permit to climb. Ultimately, the Chinese refusal may have been beneficial to Nepal's interests, allowing the government to showcase improved local hospitals and providing the opportunity for a new hybrid aviation/mountaineering style, triggering discussions about helicopter use in the mountaineering world.[98] National Geographic noted that a village festooned Wang with honours after she donated US$30,000 to the town's hospital. Wang won the International Mountaineer of the Year Award from the Nepal government in June 2014.[97]
2016: Helicopter business increases
In 2016 the increased use of helicopters was noted for increased efficiency and for hauling material over the deadly Khumbu icefall.[101] In particular it was noted that flights saved icefall porters 80 trips but still increased commercial activity at Everest.[101] After many Nepalis died in the icefall in 2014, the government had wanted helicopters to handle more transportation to Camp 1 but this was not possible because of the 2015 earthquake closing the mountain, so this was then implemented in 2016 (helicopters did prove instrumental in rescuing many people in 2015 though).[101] That summer Bell tested the 412EPI, which conducted a series of tests including hovering at 5،500 m (18،000 ft) and flying as high as 6،100 m (20،000 ft) altitude near Mount Everest.[102]
الرياضات الخطرة
Mount Everest has been host to other winter sports and adventuring besides mountaineering, including snowboarding, skiing, paragliding, and BASE jumping.
Yuichiro Miura became the first man to ski down Everest in the 1970s. He descended nearly 1،300 vertical متر (4،200 ft) from the South Col before falling with extreme injuries.[103] Stefan Gatt and Marco Siffredi snowboarded Mount Everest in 2001.[104] Other Everest skiers include Davo Karničar of Slovenia, who completed a top to South Base Camp descent in 2000, Hans Kammerlander of Italy in 1996 on the north side, and Kit DesLauriers of the United States in 2006.[105] Marco Siffredi died in 2002 on his second snow-boarding expedition.[104] In 2025, Andrzej Bargiel completed the first descent by ski without supplemental oxygen.[106][107]
Various types of gliding descents have slowly become more popular, and are noted for their rapid descents to lower camps. In 1986 Steve McKinney led an expedition to Mount Everest.[108] Frenchman Jean-Marc Boivin made the first paraglider descent of Everest in September 1988, descending in minutes from the Southeast Ridge to a lower camp.[85] In 2011, Nepalis Sano Babu Sunuwar and Lakpa Tsheri Sherpa made a gliding descent from the Everest summit down 5،000 متر (16،400 ft) in 45 minutes.[109]
الأهمية الدينية
The southern part of Mount Everest is regarded as one of several "hidden valleys" of refuge designated by Padmasambhava, a ninth-century "lotus-born" Buddhist saint.[110]
Near the base of the north side of Everest lies Rongbuk Monastery, which has been called the "sacred threshold to Mount Everest, with the most dramatic views of the world."[111] For Sherpas living on the slopes of Everest in the Khumbu region of Nepal, Rongbuk Monastery is an important pilgrimage site, accessed in a few days of travel across the Himalayas through Nangpa La.[112]
Miyolangsangma, a Tibetan Buddhist "Goddess of Inexhaustible Giving", is believed to have lived at the top of Mount Everest. According to Sherpa Buddhist monks, Mount Everest is Miyolangsangma's palace and playground, and all climbers are only partially welcome guests, having arrived without invitation.[110]
The Sherpa people also believe that Mount Everest and its flanks are blessed with spiritual energy, and one should show reverence when passing through this sacred landscape. Here, the karmic effects of one's actions are magnified, and impure thoughts are best avoided.[110]
الأهمية الثقافية
Mount Everest is a national symbol of Nepal and is featured on its national currency. Following Nepal's transition from a monarchy to a republic in 2008, Nepal Rastra Bank replaced portraits of the former king with illustrations of Mount Everest on the obverse (front) of all standard Nepalese rupee banknotes (from Rs. 5 to Rs. 1,000).[113] Mount Everest and the surrounding Himalayan peaks also appear in the background on the reverse (back) of several banknotes, such as the Rs. 5 note.[114]
The outline of Mount Everest and its Nepali name, Sagarmatha (सगरमाथा), are also featured on standard Nepalese coins, such as the 1-rupee and 2-rupee coins, as well as on special coins made to mark important events or occasions.[114]
إدارة المخلفات
In 2015, the president of the Nepal Mountaineering Association warned that pollution, especially human waste, has reached critical levels. As much as 12،000 kg (26،500 lb) of human excrement each season is left behind on the mountain.[115] Human waste is strewn across the verges of the route to the summit, making the four sleeping areas on the route up Everest's south side minefields of human excrement. Climbers above Base Camp—for the 62-year history of climbing on the mountain—have most commonly either buried their excrement in holes they dug by hand in the snow, or slung it into crevasses, or simply defecated wherever convenient, often within metres of their tents. The only place where climbers can defecate without worrying about contaminating the mountain is Base Camp. At approximately 5،500 m (18،000 ft), Base Camp sees the most activity of all camps on Everest because climbers acclimate and rest there. In the late-1990s, expeditions began using toilets that they fashioned from blue plastic 190-لتر (50-غالون-أمريكي) barrels fitted with a toilet seat and enclosed.[116]
The problem of human waste is compounded by the presence of more anodyne waste: spent oxygen tanks, abandoned tents, empty cans and bottles. The Nepali government now requires each climber to pack out eight kilograms of waste when descending the mountain.[117]
In February 2019, due to the mounting waste problem, China closed the base camp on its side of Everest to visitors without climbing permits. Tourists are allowed to go as far as the Rongbuk Monastery.[118]
In April 2019, the Solukhumbu district's Khumbu Pasanglhamu Rural Municipality launched a campaign to collect nearly 10،000 kg (20،000 lb) of garbage from Everest.[119] Five years later, 2024, waste removal is receiving continuing attention.[120][121][122]
انظر أيضا
- Chinese plan for a rail tunnel under Mount Everest
- Everesting
- List of deaths on eight-thousanders
- List of elevation extremes by country
- Summits farthest from the Earth's center
- List of Mount Everest death statistics
- List of Mount Everest summiters by number of times to the summit
- List of people who died climbing Mount Everest
- List of ski descents of Eight-Thousanders
- List of tallest mountains in the Solar System
- Mount Everest in popular culture
- Mount Hood climbing accidents
- Mukhiyapatti Musharniya – The lowest point of Nepal
- Qomolangma National Park
- Rongbuk Glacier
- Sagarmatha National Park
- The Himalayan Database
- Timeline of Mount Everest expeditions
ملاحظات
- ^ من گوكيو ري
- ^ Based on the 2020 surveys of elevation of snow cap, i.e. the highest point of permanent snow ice on the summit—as opposed to the highest point of rock, which was measured at roughly 8,844 metres. For more details, see Surveys.
- ^ The position of the summit of Everest on the international border is clearly shown on detailed topographic mapping, including official Nepali mapping.
- ^ It remains unclear whether George Mallory and Andrew Irvine reached the summit in 1924 or not. For more details, see 1924 British Mount Everest expedition.
- ^ أ ب The "base" of a mountain is a problematic notion in general with no universally accepted definition. However, for a peak rising out of relatively flat terrain, such as Mauna Kea or Denali, an "approximate" height above "base" can be calculated. Everest is more complicated since it only rises above relatively flat terrain on its north (Tibetan Plateau) side. Hence the concept of "base" has even less meaning for Everest than for Mauna Kea or Denali, and the range of numbers for "height above base" is wider. In general, comparisons based on "height above base" are somewhat suspect.
- ^ In the table below, the temperature given is the average lowest temperature recorded in that month. So, in an average year, the lowest recorded July temperature will be −18 degrees Celsius, and the lowest recorded January temperature will be −36 degrees Celsius.
- ^ Nepali: सगरमाथा, Nepali pronunciation: [səɡərˈmaːtʰaː]
- ^ Standard Tibetan: ཇོ་མོ་གླང་མ, Tibetan pronunciation: [[t͡ɕʰòmó láŋmá]]
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وصلات خارجية
 360° panoramic view (virtual tour) |
- National Geographic site on Mt. Everest
- NOVA site on Mt. Everest
- Royal Geographical Society site on Mt. Everest
- Mount Everest panorama, Mount Everest interactive panorama (Quicktime format), Virtual panoramas *North *South
- Interactive climb of Everest from Discovery Channel
- Mount Everest on Summitpost
- Full list of all 3,679 ascents of Everest up to and including 2007 (in pdf format)
- Summits and deaths per year
- The Everest Trek guidebook
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