المعرفة

اتفاقية الإبادة الجماعية

(تم التحويل من Genocide Convention)

اتفاقية منع ومعاقبة جريمة الإبادة الجماعية أو اتفاقية الإبادة (Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide، Genocide Convention، اختصاراً CPPCG)، هي معاهدة دولية تجرم الإبادة الجماعية وتلزم الدول الأطراف بمواصلة إنفاذ حظرها. كانت الاتفاقية أول صك قانوني يقنن الإبادة الجماعية كجريمة، وأول معاهدة حقوق الإنسان المعتمدة بالإجماع من قبل الجمعية العامة للأمم المتحدة، في 9 ديسمبر 1948، أثناء الدورة الثالثة للجمعية العامة للأمم المتحدة.[1] دخلت الاتفاقية حيز التنفيذ في 12 يناير 1951 ووقعت عليها 152 دولة من أعضاء الأمم المتحدة (اعتباراً من 2022).

اتفاقية الإبادة الجماعية
اتفاقية منع ومعاقبة جريمة الإبادة الجماعية
التوقيع9 ديسمبر 1948
المكانقصر دي شيلوت، باريس، فرنسا
تاريخ السريان12 يناير 1951
الموقعون39
الأطراف152 (القائمة الكاملة)
المودع لديهأمين عام الأمم المتحدة
اتفاقية الإبادة الجماعية في معرفة المصادر

وُضعت اتفاقية الإبادة الجماعية إلى حد كبير ردًا على الحرب العالمية الثانية، والتي شهدت فظائع مثل الهولوكوست التي كانت تفتقر إلى وصف مناسب أو تعريف قانوني. المحامي اليهودي الپولندي رفاييل لمكين، الذي صاغ مصطلح الإبادة الجماعية عام 1944 لوصف السياسات النازية في أوروپا المحتلة ومذابح الأرمن، قام بحملة من أجل الاعتراف بها باعتبارها جريمة بموجب القانون الدولي.[2] بلغ ذلك ذروته عام 1946 بقرار تاريخي أصدرته الجمعية العامة اعترف بالإبادة الجماعية باعتبارها جريمة دولية ودعا إلى إنشاء معاهدة ملزمة لمنع ارتكابها والمعاقبة عليها.[3] أسفرت المناقشات والمفاوضات اللاحقة بين الدول الأعضاء في الأمم المتحدة عن اتفاقية الإبادة الجماعية.

وتعرّف الاتفاقية الإبادة الجماعية بأنها أي من "الأفعال الخمسة المرتكبة بقصد التدمير الكلي أو الجزئي لمجموعة قومية أو عرقية أو عنصرية أو دينية". وتشمل هذه الأفعال الخمسة قتل أعضاء الجماعة، والتسبب في أذى جسدي أو عقلي خطير لهم، وفرض ظروف معيشية تهدف إلى تدمير الجماعة، ومنع الولادات، ونقل الأطفال قسراً خارج الجماعة. وأن يكون استهداف الضحايا بسبب انتمائهم الحقيقي أو المتصور إلى مجموعة ما، وليس بشكل عشوائي.[4] كما تجرم الاتفاقية "التواطؤ أو الشروع أو التحريض على ارتكابها". يُحظر على الدول الأعضاء المشاركة في أعمال الإبادة الجماعية، وهم ملزمون بمواصلة إنفاذ هذا الحظر. يجب محاكمة جميع الجناة بغض النظر عما إذا كانوا أفرادًا عاديين، أو موظفين عموميين، أو قادة سياسيين يتمتعون بحصانة سيادية.


لقد أثرت اتفاقية الإبادة الجماعية قانونياً على المستويين الوطني والدولي. اعتمد تعريفها للإبادة الجماعية من قبل المحاكم الدولية والمختلطة، مثل المحكمة الجنائية الدولية، وتم دمجه في القانون المحلي للعديد من البلدان.[5] وتعتبر أحكامها على نطاق واسع انعكاسًا للقانون العرفي وبالتالي فهي ملزمة لجميع الدول سواء كانت أطرافًا فيها أم لا. وبالمثل، قضت محكمة العدل الدولية بأن المبادئ التي تقوم عليها الاتفاقية تمثل قاعدة آمرة ضد الإبادة الجماعية ولا تستطيع أي حكومة عدم التقيد بها.[6] تسمح اتفاقية الإبادة الجماعية بالولاية القضائية الإلزامية لمحكمة العدل الدولية للفصل في النزاعات، مما يؤدي إلى دعاوى قضائية دولية مثل قضية إبادة الروهنگيا والنزاع حول الغزو الروسي لأوكرانيا 2022.


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تعريف الإبادة

Article 2 of the Convention defines genocide as

... any of the following acts committed with intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnic, racial or religious group, as such:

(a) Killing members of the group;
(b) Causing serious bodily or mental harm to members of the group;
(c) Deliberately inflicting on the group conditions of life calculated to bring about its physical destruction in whole or in part;
(d) Imposing measures intended to prevent births within the group;
(e) Forcibly transferring children of the group to another group.
— Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, Article 2[7]

Article 3 defines the crimes that can be punished under the convention:

(a) Genocide;
(b) Conspiracy to commit genocide;
(c) Direct and public incitement to commit genocide;
(d) Attempt to commit genocide;
(e) Complicity in genocide.
— Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, Article 3[7]

The convention was passed to outlaw actions similar to the Armenian genocide and the Holocaust.[8]

The first draft of the Convention included political killing, but the USSR[9] along with some other nations would not accept that actions against groups identified as holding similar political opinions or social status would constitute genocide,[10] so these stipulations were subsequently removed in a political and diplomatic compromise.

Early drafts also included acts of cultural destruction in the concept of genocide, but these were opposed by former European colonial powers and some settler countries.[11] Such acts, which Lemkin saw as part and parcel of the concept of genocide, have since often been discussed as cultural genocide (a term also not enshrined in international law). In June 2021, the International Criminal Court issued new guidelines for how cultural destruction, when occurring alongside other recognized acts of genocide, can potentially be corroborating evidence for the intent of the crime of genocide.[12]


الدول الموقعة

المقالة الرئيسية: قائمة الدول الموقعة على اتفاقية الإبادة الجماعية
 
الدول الموقعة على اتفاقية الإبادة الجماعية
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اعتبارا من مايو 2021, there are 152 state parties to the Genocide Convention—representing the vast majority of sovereign nations—with the most recent being Mauritius, on 8 July 2019; one state, the Dominican Republic, has signed but not ratified the treaty. Forty-four states have neither signed nor ratified the convention.

Despite its delegates playing a key role in drafting the convention, the United States did not become a party until 1988—a full forty years after it was opened for signature[13]—and did so only with reservations precluding punishment of the country if it were ever accused of genocide.[14] These were due to traditional American suspicion of any international authority that could override US law. U.S. ratification of the convention was owed in large part to campaigning by Senator William Proxmire, who addressed the Senate in support of the treaty every day it was in session between 1967 and 1986.[15]

Reservations

الحصانة من الملاحقات القضائية

Several parties conditioned their ratification of the Convention on reservations that grant immunity from prosecution for genocide without the consent of the national government:[16][17]

Parties making reservations from prosecution Note
  Bahrain
  Bangladesh
  China
  India
  Malaysia Opposed by Netherlands, United Kingdom
  Morocco
  Myanmar
  Singapore Opposed by Netherlands, United Kingdom
  United Arab Emirates
  United States of America Opposed by Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Mexico, Netherlands, Norway, Spain, Sweden, Turkey and United Kingdom
  Venezuela
  Vietnam Opposed by United Kingdom
  Yemen Opposed by United Kingdom

التطبيق على الأقاليم غير المتمتعة بالحكم الذاتي

Any Contracting Party may at any time, by notification addressed to the Secretary-General of the United Nations, extend the application of the present Convention to all or any of the territories for the conduct of whose foreign relations that Contracting Party is responsible

— Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, Article 12[7]

Several countries opposed this article, considering that the convention automatically also should apply to Non-Self-Governing Territories:

  •   Albania
  •   Belarus
  •   Bulgaria
  •   Hungary
  •   Mongolia
  •   Myanmar
  •   Poland
  •   Romania
  •   Russian Federation
  •   Ukraine

The opposition of those countries were in turn opposed by:

  •   Australia
  •   Belgium
  •   Brazil
  •   Ecuador
  •   China
  •   Netherlands
  •   Sri Lanka
  •   United Kingdom

(However, exceptionally, Australia did make such a notification at the same time as the ratification of the convention for Australia proper, 8 July 1949, with the effect that the convention did apply also to all territories under Australian control simultaneously, as the USSR et alii had demanded. The European colonial powers in general did not then make such notifications.)


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رفع الدعاوى

الولايات المتحدة

المقالة الرئيسية: نحن ارتكبنا إبادة جماعية

One of the first accusations of genocide submitted to the UN after the Convention entered into force concerned the treatment of Black Americans. The Civil Rights Congress drafted a 237-page petition arguing that even after 1945, the United States had been responsible for hundreds of wrongful deaths, both legal and extra-legal, as well as numerous other supposedly genocidal abuses. Leaders from the Black community and left activists William Patterson, Paul Robeson, and W. E. B. Du Bois presented this petition to the UN in December 1951. It was rejected as a misuse of the intent of the treaty.[18] Charges under We Charge Genocide entailed the lynching of more than 10,000 African Americans with an average of more than 100 per year, with the full number being unconfirmed at the time due to unreported murder cases.[19]

يوغسلاڤيا السابقة

The first state and parties to be found in breach of the Genocide Convention were Serbia and Montenegro, and numerous Bosnian Serb leaders. In Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Serbia and Montenegro, the International Court of Justice presented its judgment on 26 February 2007. It cleared Serbia of direct involvement in genocide during the Bosnian war. International Tribunal findings have addressed two allegations of genocidal events, including the 1992 ethnic cleansing campaign in municipalities throughout Bosnia, as well as the convictions found in regards to the Srebrenica massacre of 1995 in which the tribunal found, "Bosnian Serb forces committed genocide, they targeted for extinction, the 40,000 Bosnian Muslims of Srebrenica ... the trial chamber refers to the crimes by their appropriate name, genocide ..." However, individual convictions applicable to the 1992 ethnic cleansings have not been secured. A number of domestic courts and legislatures have found these events to have met the criteria of genocide, and the ICTY found the acts of, and intent to destroy to have been satisfied, the "dolus specialis" still in question and before the MICT, a UN war crimes court,[20][21] but ruled that Belgrade did breach international law by failing to prevent the 1995 Srebrenica genocide, and for failing to try or transfer the persons accused of genocide to the ICTY, in order to comply with its obligations under Articles I and VI of the Genocide Convention, in particular in respect of General Ratko Mladić.[22][23]

بورما

المقالة الرئيسية: قضية إبادة الروهنگيا

Myanmar has been accused of genocide against its Rohingya community in Rakhine State after around 800,000 Rohingya fled at gunpoint to neighbouring Bangladesh in 2016 and 2017, while their home villages were systematically burned. The International Court of Justice has given its first circular in 2018 asking Myanmar to protect its Rohingya from genocide.[24][25][26] Myanmar's civilian government was overthrown by the military on 1 February 2021; since the military is widely seen as the main culprit of the genocide, the coup presents a further challenge to the ICJ.

روسيا

المقالة الرئيسية: أوكرانيا ضد روسيا الاتحادية (2022)

الاتهامات الأوكرانية لروسيا بإرتكاب الإبادة

المقالة الرئيسية: مزاعم الإبادة الجماعية في دونباس

In February 2022, Russia invaded Ukraine, claiming that it acted, among other reasons, in order to protect Russian-speaking Ukrainians from genocide. The unfounded and false Russian charge that has been widely condemned, and has been called by genocide experts accusation in a mirror, a powerful, historically recurring, form of incitement to genocide.[27]

الفظائع الروسية في أوكرانيا

المقالة الرئيسية: مزاعم الإبادة الجماعية للأوكرانيين في الغزو الروسي لأوكرانيا

Russian forces committed numerous atrocities and war crimes in Ukraine, including all five of the potentially genocidal acts listed in the Genocide Convention. Canada, Czechia, Estonia, Ireland, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, and Ukraine have accused Russia of genocide. In April 2022 Genocide Watch issued a genocide alert for Ukraine.[28][29] A May 2022 report by 35 legal and genocide experts concluded that Russia has violated the Genocide Convention by the direct and public incitement to commit genocide, and that a pattern of Russian atrocities implies the intent to destroy the Ukrainian national group, and the consequent serious risk of genocide triggers the obligation to prevent it on signatory states.[30][27]

إسرائيل

في ديسمبر 2023، اتهمت جنوب أفريقيا إسرائيل رسميًا بانتهاك اتفاقية الإبادة الجماعية، ورفعت القضية جنوب أفريقيا ضد إسرائيل (اتفاقية الإبادة الجماعية)، بسبب ما قامت به إسرائيل أثناء حربها على غزة. بالإضافة إلى بدء عملية التقاضي، طلبت جنوب أفريقيا أيضًا من محكمة العدل الدولية أن تطالب إسرائيل بوقف عملياتها العسكرية في قطاع غزة كإجراء مؤقت.[31][32]

انظر أيضاً

المصادر

  1. ^ "Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide" (PDF). United Nations Audiovisual Library of International Law. Retrieved 2020-01-05.
  2. ^ Auron, Yair, The Banality of Denial, (Transaction Publishers, 2004), 9.
  3. ^ "A/RES/96(I) - E - A/RES/96(I) -Desktop". undocs.org. Retrieved 2021-06-03.
  4. ^ "Genocide Background". United Nations Office on Genocide Prevention and the Responsibility to Protect.
  5. ^ "United Nations Office on Genocide Prevention and the Responsibility to Protect". www.un.org. Retrieved 2021-06-03.
  6. ^ "United Nations Office on Genocide Prevention and the Responsibility to Protect". United Nations. Retrieved 2023-11-24. The ICJ has also stated that the prohibition of genocide is a peremptory norm of international law (or ius cogens) and consequently, no derogation from it is allowed.
  7. ^ أ ب ت "Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide". OHCHR. 1948-12-09. Archived from the original on 2022-04-13. Retrieved 2022-04-18.
  8. ^ The Armenian Genocide and International Law, Alfred de Zayas – "And yet there are those who claim that the Armenians have no justiciable rights, because the Genocide Convention was only adopted 1948, more than thirty years after the Armenian genocide, and because treaties are not normally applied retroactively. This, of course, is a fallacy, because the Genocide Convention was drafted and adopted precisely in the light of the Armenian genocide and in the light of the Holocaust."
  9. ^ Robert Gellately & Ben Kiernan (2003). The Specter of Genocide: Mass Murder in Historical Perspective. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. 267. ISBN 0-521-52750-3. where Stalin was presumably anxious to avoid his purges being subjected to genocidal scrutiny.
  10. ^ Staub, Ervin (1989). The Roots of Evil: The Origins of Genocide and Other Group Violence. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. p. 8. ISBN 0-521-42214-0.
  11. ^ C. Luck, Edward (2018). "Cultural Genocide and the Protection of Cultural Heritage. J. Paul Getty Trust Occasional Papers in Cultural Heritage Policy Number 2, 2018" (PDF). J Paul Getty Trust. p. 24. Current or former colonial powers—Belgium, Denmark, France, Netherlands, and the United Kingdom—opposed the retention of references to cultural genocide in the draft convention. So did settler countries that had displaced indigenous peoples but otherwise were champions of the development of international human rights standards, including the United States, Canada, Sweden, Brazil, New Zealand, and Australia.
  12. ^ International Criminal Court (ICC), Office of the Prosecutor. "Policy on Cultural Heritage" (PDF). ICC.
  13. ^ Korey, William (March 1997). "The United States and the Genocide Convention: Leading Advocate and Leading Obstacle". Ethics & International Affairs. 11: 271–290. doi:10.1111/j.1747-7093.1997.tb00032.x. S2CID 145335690.
  14. ^ Bradley, Curtis A.; Goldsmith, Jack L. (2000). "Treaties, Human Rights, and Conditional Consent" (PDF). University of Pennsylvania Law Review. doi:10.2139/SSRN.224298. S2CID 153350639. SSRN 224298. The United States attached a reservation to its ratification of the Genocide Convention, for example, stating that 'before any dispute to which the United States is a party may be submitted to the jurisdiction of the International Court of Justice under [Article IX of the Convention], the specific consent of the United States is required in each case.'
  15. ^ "U.S. Senate: William Proxmire and the Genocide Treaty". www.senate.gov. Retrieved 2021-06-03.
  16. ^ Prevent Genocide International: Declarations and Reservations to the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide
  17. ^ United Nations Treaty Collection: Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide Archived 20 أكتوبر 2012 at the Wayback Machine, STATUS AS AT: 1 October 2011 07:22:22 EDT
  18. ^ John Docker, "Raphaël Lemkin, creator of the concept of genocide: a world history perspective", Humanities Research 16(2), 2010.
  19. ^ "UN Asked to Act Against Genocide in the United States". The Afro-American. 22 December 1951. Retrieved 18 October 2022. {{cite magazine}}: Cite magazine requires |magazine= (help)
  20. ^ Chambers, The Hague. "ICTY convicts Ratko Mladić for genocide, war crimes and crimes against humanity | International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia". www.icty.org (in الإنجليزية).
  21. ^ Hudson, Alexandra (26 February 2007). "Serbia cleared of genocide, failed to stop killing". Reuters. Archived from the original on 2 March 2007.
  22. ^ "ICJ:Summary of the Judgment of 26 February 2007 – Bosnia v. Serbia". Archived from the original on 5 June 2011. Retrieved 19 January 2008.
  23. ^ Court Declares Bosnia Killings Were Genocide The New York Times, 26 February 2007. A copy of the ICJ judgement can be found here Archived 28 فبراير 2007 at the Wayback Machine
  24. ^ "Top UN court orders Myanmar to protect Rohingya from genocide". UN News (in الإنجليزية). 2020-01-23. Retrieved 2021-01-20.
  25. ^ "Interview: Landmark World Court Order Protects Rohingya from Genocide". Human Rights Watch (in الإنجليزية). 2020-01-27. Retrieved 2021-01-20.
  26. ^ Paul, Stephanie van den Berg, Ruma (2020-01-23). "World Court orders Myanmar to protect Rohingya from acts of genocide". Reuters (in الإنجليزية). Retrieved 2021-01-20.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  27. ^ أ ب "Independent Legal Analysis of the Russian Federation's Breaches of the Genocide Convention in Ukraine and the Duty to Prevent" (PDF). New Lines Institute for Strategy and Policy; Raoul Wallenberg Centre for Human Rights. 27 May 2022. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2022-06-16. Retrieved 2022-07-22.
  28. ^ "Genocide Emergency Update: Ukraine". Genocide Watch. April 13, 2022.
  29. ^ "Genocide Emergency: Ukraine". Genocide Watch. September 4, 2022.
  30. ^ "Russia is guilty of inciting genocide in Ukraine, expert report concludes". the Guardian (in الإنجليزية). 2022-05-27. Retrieved 2022-12-24.
  31. ^ Corder, Mike (29 December 2023). "South Africa launches case at top UN court accusing Israel of genocide in Gaza". AP News (in الإنجليزية). Retrieved 2 January 2024.
  32. ^ "APPLICATION INSTITUTING PROCEEDINGS" (PDF). INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE. Retrieved 2 January 2024.

قراءات إضافية

 
 اقرأ نصاً ذا علاقة في

Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide


قالب:International criminal law

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