إرازموس داروين

(تم التحويل من Erasmus Darwin)
هذا المقال عن إرازموس داروين، عاش 1731–1802؛ لمقال عن أحفاده ممن حملوا اسمه، انظر إرازموس داروين (توضيح).
هذا المقال هو عن Erasmus Darwin, who lived 1731–1802. إذا كنت تريد his descendants with the same name، انظر Erasmus Darwin (disambiguation).
Erasmus Darwin

FRS
Erasmus Darwin c. 1792–1793, oil painting by Joseph Wright of Derby, Derby Museum and Art Gallery
وُلِدَ
Erasmus Robert Darwin

(1731-12-12)12 ديسمبر 1731
Elston Hall, Elston, Nottinghamshire
near Newark-on-Trent, England
توفي18 أبريل 1802(1802-04-18) (aged 70)
Breadsall, Derbyshire, England
المثوىAll Saints Church, Breadsall
المدرسة الأم
الأنجال14
الوالدان
الأقاربSee Darwin–Wedgwood family

إرازموس داروين Erasmus Darwin (و. 12 ديسمبر 1731 – ت. 18 أبريل 1802) كان طبيباً إنگليزياً رفض دعوة الملك جورج الثالث ليصبح طبيب الملك. وبالاضافة لكونه أحد أهم مفكري تنوير الميدلاندز، فقد كان فيلسوفاً طبيعياً، وفسيولوجيا، ومنادي بحظر تجارة العبيد،[1] ومحترع وشاعر. وقد حوت أشعاره الكثير من التاريخ الطبيعي، بما فيها رسالة عن التطور وقرابة كل أشكال الحياة. وقد كان سليل أسرة داروين-ودج‌وود، التي ضمت أحفاده تشارلز داروين وفرانسيس گالتون. كما كان داروين عضواً مؤسساً في الجمعية القمرية في برمنگهام، وهي مجموعة نقاش مكونة من رواد صناعيين وفلاسفة طبيعيين.

Erasmus Robert Darwin (12 December 1731 – 18 April 1802) was an English physician. One of the key thinkers of the Midlands Enlightenment, he was also a natural philosopher, physiologist, abolitionist, inventor, freemason, and poet.

His poems included much natural history, including a statement of evolution and the relatedness of all forms of life.

He was a member of the Darwin–Wedgwood family, which includes his grandsons Charles Darwin and Francis Galton. Darwin was a founding member of the Lunar Society of Birmingham, a discussion group of pioneering industrialists and natural philosophers.

He turned down an invitation from George III to become Physician to the King.

حياته

تمثال نصفي لإرازموس داروين، نحت دبليو جي كوفي، ح. 1795
منزل داروين في ليتش‌فيلد، أصبح الآن متحف لحياته وأعماله.

إرازموس داروين - جد شارلز - قد تلقى بالفعل تقديرنا وثناءنا فقد كان شرارة وضّاءة وسط ألمعية هذا العصر الذي شهد نشر أعماله: الحديقة النباتية Botanic Garden (2971) وعلم أصول الحياة الحيوانية Zoonomia (4971 - 6971) ومعبد الطبيعة The Temple of Nature (3081). لقد كتبت هذه الكتب جميعا من وجهة نظر تطورية. وقد اتفقت هذه الدراسات مع لامارك Lamarck في إقامة النظرية على أمل تكيف العادات والأعضاء على وفق للرغبة والمجهود والعزم فإذا ما استمر ذلك وقويت خلال أجيال كثيرة لأمكن انتقال (هذه الصفات الجديدة والمرغوب فيها) إلى العصب والجسم. هذا الأستاذ العبقري الذي أصبح اسمه كبيرا على طول المدى عمد إلى التوفيق بين التطور والدين بافتراض أن كل الحياة الحيوانية (بما فيها البشرية) كانت قد بدأت من مستودع لقاح حي واحد كان هو العلة الأولى الكبيرة المتضمنة لكل الكائنات الحية ثم خُلِّي سبيلها لتتحسن على وفق لنشاطها الداخلي الخاص بها، ولتسلم مالحق بها من تطورات وتحسنات للأجيال اللاحقة جيلا بعد جيل وبلا نهاية(8). [2]

لقد دخل الحوار الدائم بين الدين والعلم - رغم خفوته في هذا العصر - في مملكة (عالم) السيكولوجيا الذي أصبح مجالا يحظى بالرعاية في وقت من الأوقات ، عندما قام هارتلي Hartley وبريستلي Priestly بإعداد تفسير فسيولوجي للربط بين الأفكار وعندما استوحى علماء التشريح - بشكل متزايد - فكرة العلاقة بين الجسد والعقل (النفس). وفي سنة 1181 نشر شارلزبل Bell مبحثه فكرة جديدة عن تشريح المخ Anew Idea of the Anatomy of the Brain وبدأ في هذا المبحث يبرهن على أن أجزاء مخصوصة في الجهاز العصبي تحول انطباعات الحواس إلى أجزاء مخصوصة في المخ، وأن أعصاباً مخصوصة تحمل أوامر الحركة إلى أعضاء الاستجابة المنوط بها التنفيذ. وبدت ظاهرة التنويم المغاطيسي - التي زاد انتشارها - تشير إلى تحول فسيولوجي للإحساس إلى أفكار ومن ثم إلى أعمال ، وقد تم تناول تأثير الأفيون من حيث جلبه للنوم وتأثيره في الأحلام وحفزه للخيال وإضعافه للإرادة (كما ذكر كولردج Coleridge ودى كوينسي De Quincey) في سياق الحديث عن حرية الإرادة، وتم تقليص هذه القضية الكبيرة (حرية الإرادة) إلى مقادير جبرية تصوغ الدوافع والمحركات والخيالات المختلفة المتصارعة. وبدا الوضع المزدهر الصاعد للمناقشات العلمية والمركز الاجتماعي المرموق لمهنة الطب مقارنة بالمركز المتدني للإكليروس الأنجليكاني (رجال الدين الأنجليكان) الذي قلت فعاليته كثيرا - يعكس اللامبالاة الدينية التي كانت قد بدأت تنتشر بشكل سري، بل وتعكس ماحاق بالدين من شك لدرجة وجود من أنكره تماما.

Darwin's House in Lichfield, now a museum dedicated to his life and work

Darwin was born in 1731 at Elston Hall, Nottinghamshire, near Newark-on-Trent, England, the youngest of seven children of Robert Darwin of Elston (1682–1754), a lawyer and physician, and his wife Elizabeth Hill (1702–97). The name Erasmus had been used by a number of his family and derives from his ancestor Erasmus Earle, Common Sergent of England under Oliver Cromwell.[3] His siblings were:

  • Robert Waring Darwin of Elston (17 October 1724 – 4 November 1816)
  • Elizabeth Darwin (15 September 1725 – 8 April 1800)
  • William Alvey Darwin (3 October 1726 – 7 October 1783)
  • Anne Darwin (12 November 1727 – 3 August 1813)
  • Susannah Darwin (10 April 1729 – 29 September 1789)
  • Rev. John Darwin, rector of Elston (28 September 1730 – 24 May 1805)

He was educated at Chesterfield Grammar School, then later at St John's College, Cambridge.[4] He obtained his medical education at the University of Edinburgh Medical School.

Darwin settled in 1756 as a physician at Nottingham, but met with little success and so moved the following year to Lichfield to try to establish a practice there. A few weeks after his arrival, using a novel course of treatment, he restored the health of a young fisherman whose death seemed inevitable. This ensured his success in the new locale. Darwin was a highly successful physician for more than fifty years in the Midlands.[5] In 1761, he was elected to the Royal Society.[6] George III invited him to be Royal Physician, but Darwin declined.[5]

الحياة الشخصية

Portrait of Erasmus Darwin, 1770, by Joseph Wright of Derby

Darwin married twice and had 14 children, including two illegitimate daughters by an employee, and, possibly, at least one further illegitimate daughter.

Erasmus Darwin's coat of arms. Escutcheon: Argent, on a bend Gules cottised Vert, three escallop shells, Or. Crest: A demi-griffin segreant, Vert, holding in his claws an escallop, Or. Motto: E conchis omnia (All things out of conches/molluscs).

In 1757 he married Mary (Polly) Howard (1740–1770), the daughter of Charles Howard, a Lichfield solicitor.[7] They had four sons and one daughter, two of whom (a son and a daughter) died in infancy:

  • Charles Darwin (1758–1778), uncle of the naturalist
  • Erasmus Darwin Jr (1759–1799)
  • Elizabeth Darwin (1763, survived 4 months)
  • Robert Waring Darwin (1766–1848), father of the naturalist Charles Darwin
  • William Alvey Darwin (1767, survived 19 days)

The first Mrs. Darwin died in 1770. A governess, Mary Parker, was hired to look after Robert. By late 1771, employer and employee had become intimately involved and together they had two illegitimate daughters:

  • Susanna Parker (1772–1856)
  • Mary Parker Jr (1774–1859)

Susanna and Mary Jr later established a boarding school for girls. In 1782, Mary Sr (the governess) married Joseph Day (1745–1811), a Birmingham merchant, and moved away.

There was also a rumour that Darwin fathered another child, this time with a married woman. A Lucy Swift gave birth in 1771 to a baby, also named Lucy, who was christened a daughter of her mother and William Swift. It has been suggested that the father was really Darwin.[8] However, it is more likely that this child was the legitimate daughter of Lamech Swift, at that time owner of the Derby Silk Mill and his wife Dorothy, who became a friend of the two Parker girls.[9] Lucy Swift, later known as Lucy Hardcastle after her marriage, went on to be known as a botanist and teacher.[10]

In 1775, Darwin met Elizabeth Pole, daughter of Charles Colyear, 2nd Earl of Portmore, and wife of Colonel Edward Pole (1718–1780); but as she was married, Darwin could only make his feelings known for her through poetry. When Edward Pole died, Darwin married Elizabeth and moved to her home, Radbourne Hall, أربعة ميل (6.4 km) west of Derby. The hall and village are these days known as Radbourne. In 1782, they moved to Full Street, Derby. They had four sons, one of whom died in infancy, and three daughters:

Darwin's personal appearance is described in unflattering detail in his Biographical Memoirs, printed by the Monthly Magazine in 1802. Darwin, the description reads, "was of middle stature, in person gross and corpulent; his features were coarse, and his countenance heavy; if not wholly void of animation, it certainly was by no means expressive. The print of him, from a painting of Mr. Wright, is a good likeness. In his gait and dress he was rather clumsy and slovenly, and frequently walked with his tongue hanging out of his mouth."

داروين عام 1770

تزوج داروين مرتان، وكان لديه 14 نجل، منهم إبنتان غير شرعيتان، ويحمل أن يكون لديه ابنة أخرى غير شرعية.


الماسونية

Darwin had been a Freemason throughout his life, in the Time Immemorial Lodge of Cannongate Kilwinning, No. 2, of Scotland. Later on, Sir Francis Darwin, one of his sons, was made a Mason in Tyrian Lodge, No. 253, at Derby, in 1807 or 1808. His son Reginald () was made a Mason in Tyrian Lodge in 1804. Charles Darwin's name does not appear on the rolls of the Lodge but it is very possible that he, like Francis, was a Mason.[11]

الوفاة

Memorial in Lichfield Cathedral

Darwin died suddenly on 18 April 1802, weeks after having moved to Breadsall Priory, just north of Derby. The Monthly Magazine of 1802, in its Biographical Memoirs of the Late Dr. Darwin, reports that "during the last few years, Dr. Darwin was much subject to inflammation in his breast and lungs; he had a very serious attack of this disease in the course of the last Spring, from which, after repeated bleedings, by himself and a surgeon, he with great difficulty recovered."

Darwin's death, the Biographical Memoirs continues, "is variously accounted for: it is supposed to have been caused by the cold fit of an inflammatory fever. Dr. Fox, of Derby, considers the disease which occasioned it to have been angina pectoris; but Dr. Garlicke, of the same place, thinks this opinion not sufficiently well founded. Whatever was the disease, it is not improbable, surely, that the fatal event was hastened by the violent fit of passion with which he was seized in the morning."

His body is buried in All Saints' Church, Breadsall.

Erasmus Darwin is commemorated on one of the Moonstones, a series of monuments in Birmingham.


الاختراعات

اخترع داروين أجهزة مختلفة، على الرغم من عدم حصوله على أي براءة اختراع. وكان يعتقد أن هذا سوف يضر بسمعته كطبيب، مما شجع أصدقاؤه على الحصول على براءات اختراع لتصميماته بعد إضافة بعض التعديلات الخاصة بهم.[12]


الكتابات

الأعمال النباتية وجمعية ليتشفيلد النباتية

Erasmus Darwin in stipple engraving by Holl, 1803, after J. Rawlinson

Darwin formed 'A Botanical Society, at Lichfield' almost always incorrectly named as the Lichfield Botanical Society (despite the name, composed of only three men, Erasmus Darwin, Sir Brooke Boothby and Mr John Jackson, proctor of Lichfield Cathedral[notes 1])[13][14] to translate the works of the Swedish botanist Carl Linnaeus from Latin into English. This took seven years. The result was two publications: A System of Vegetables between 1783 and 1785, and The Families of Plants in 1787. In these volumes, Darwin coined many of the English names of plants that we use today.[15]

Darwin then wrote The Loves of the Plants, a long poem, which was a popular rendering of Linnaeus' works. Darwin also wrote Economy of Vegetation, and together the two were published as The Botanic Garden. Among other writers he influenced were Anna Seward and Maria Jacson.

علم الحيوان

Darwin's most important scientific work, Zoonomia (1794–1796), contains a system of pathology and a chapter on 'Generation'. In the latter, he anticipated some of the views of Jean-Baptiste Lamarck, which foreshadowed the modern theory of evolution. Erasmus Darwin's works were read and commented on by his grandson Charles Darwin the naturalist. Erasmus Darwin based his theories on David Hartley's psychological theory of associationism.[16] The essence of his views is contained in the following passage, which he follows up with the conclusion that one and the same kind of living filament is and has been the cause of all organic life:

Would it be too bold to imagine, that in the great length of time, since the earth began to exist, perhaps millions of ages before the commencement of the history of mankind, would it be too bold to imagine, that all warm-blooded animals have arisen from one living filament, which THE GREAT FIRST CAUSE endued with animality, with the power of acquiring new parts, attended with new propensities, directed by irritations, sensations, volitions, and associations; and thus possessing the faculty of continuing to improve by its own inherent activity, and of delivering down those improvements by generation to its posterity, world without end![17]

Erasmus Darwin also anticipated survival of the fittest in Zoönomia mainly when writing about the "three great objects of desire" for every organism: "lust, hunger, and security."[17] A similar "survival of the fittest" view in Zoönomia is Erasmus' view on how a species "should" propagate itself. Erasmus' idea that "the strongest and most active animal should propagate the species, which should thence become improved".[17] Today, this is called the theory of survival of the fittest. His grandson Charles Darwin posited the different and fuller theory of natural selection. Charles' theory was that natural selection is the inheritance of changed genetic characteristics that are better adaptations to the environment; these are not necessarily based in "strength" and "activity", which themselves ironically can lead to the overpopulation that results in natural selection yielding nonsurvivors of genetic traits.

Erasmus Darwin was familiar with the earlier proto-evolutionary thinking of James Burnett, Lord Monboddo, and cited him in his 1803 work Temple of Nature.

قصيدة عن التطور

Erasmus Darwin offered the first glimpse of his theory of evolution, obliquely, in a question at the end of a long footnote to his popular poem The Loves of the Plants (1789), which was republished throughout the 1790s in several editions as The Botanic Garden. His poetic concept was to anthropomorphise the stamen (male) and pistil (female) sexual organs, as bride and groom. In this stanza on the flower Curcuma (also Flax and Turmeric) the "youths" are infertile, and he devotes the footnote to other examples of neutered organs in flowers, insect castes, and finally associates this more broadly with many popular and well-known cases of vestigial organs (male nipples, the third and fourth wings of flies, etc.)

Woo'd with long care, CURCUMA cold and shy
Meets her fond husband with averted eye:
Four beardless youths the obdurate beauty move
With soft attentions of Platonic love.

Darwin's final long poem, The Temple of Nature, was published posthumously in 1803. The poem was originally titled The Origin of Society. It is considered his best poetic work. It centres on his own conception of evolution. The poem traces the progression of life from micro-organisms to civilised society. The poem contains a passage that describes the struggle for existence.[18]

His poetry was admired by Wordsworth, while Coleridge was intensely critical, writing, "I absolutely nauseate Darwin's poem".[14] It often made reference to his interests in science; for example botany and steam engines.

تعليم المرأة

The last two leaves of Darwin's A plan for the conduct of female education in boarding schools (1797) contain a book list, an apology for the work, and an advert for "Miss Parkers School".[19]

The school advertised on the last page is the one he set up in Ashbourne, Derbyshire, for his two illegitimate children, Susanna and Mary.

Darwin regretted that a good education had not been generally available to women in Britain in his time, and drew on the ideas of Locke, Rousseau, and Genlis in organising his thoughts. Addressing the education of middle-class girls, Darwin argued that amorous romance novels were inappropriate and that they should seek simplicity in dress. He contends that young women should be educated in schools, rather than privately at home, and learn appropriate subjects. These subjects include physiognomy, physical exercise, botany, chemistry, mineralogy, and experimental philosophy. They should familiarise themselves with arts and manufactures through visits to sites like Coalbrookdale, and Wedgwood's potteries; they should learn how to handle money, and study modern languages. Darwin's educational philosophy took the view that men and women should have different capabilities, skills, interests, and spheres of action, where the woman's education was designed to support and serve male accomplishment and financial reward, and to relieve him of daily responsibility for children and the chores of life.[20] In the context of the times, this program may be read as a modernising influence in the sense that the woman was at least to learn about the "man's world", although not be allowed to participate in it. The text was written seven years after A Vindication of the Rights of Woman by Mary Wollstonecraft, which has the central argument that women should be educated in a rational manner to give them the opportunity to contribute to society.

Some women of Darwin's era were receiving more substantial education and participating in the broader world. An example is Susanna Wright, who was raised in Lancashire and became an American colonist associated with the Midlands Enlightenment. It is not known whether Darwin and Wright knew each other, although they definitely knew many people in common. Other women who received substantial education and who participated in the broader world (albeit sometimes anonymously) whom Darwin definitely knew were Maria Jacson and Anna Seward.

الجمعية القمرية

These dates indicate the year in which Darwin became friends with these people, who, in turn, became members of the Lunar Society. The Lunar Society existed from 1765 to 1813.

Before 1765:

After 1765:

Darwin also established a lifelong friendship with Benjamin Franklin, who shared Darwin's support for the American and French revolutions. The Lunar Society was instrumental as an intellectual driving force behind England's Industrial Revolution.

The members of the Lunar Society, and especially Darwin, opposed the slave trade.[1] He attacked it in The Botanic Garden (1789–1791), and in The Loves of Plants (1789), The Economy of Vegetation (1791), and the Phytologia (1800).[21]

أنشطة أخرى

In 1761, Darwin was elected a fellow of the Royal Society.[22]

In addition to the Lunar Society, Erasmus Darwin belonged to the influential Derby Philosophical Society, as did his brother-in-law Samuel Fox (see family tree below). He experimented with the use of air and gases to alleviate infections and cancers in patients. A Pneumatic Institution was established at Clifton in 1799 for clinically testing these ideas. He conducted research into the formation of clouds, on which he published in 1788. He also inspired Robert Weldon's Somerset Coal Canal caisson lock.

In 1792, Darwin was elected as a member to the American Philosophical Society in Philadelphia.[23]

Percy Bysshe Shelley specifically mentions Darwin in the first sentence of the 1818 Preface to Frankenstein to support his contention that the creation of life is possible. His wife Mary Shelley in her introduction to the 1831 edition of Frankenstein wrote that she overheard her husband talk with Lord Byron about unspecified "experiments of Dr. Darwin" that led to the idea for the novel.[24]

التأملات الكونية

Contemporary literature dates the cosmological theories of the Big Bang and Big Crunch to the 19th and 20th centuries. However, Erasmus Darwin had speculated on these sorts of events in The Botanic Garden, A Poem in Two Parts: Part 1, The Economy of Vegetation, 1791:[25]

Roll on, ye Stars! exult in youthful prime,
Mark with bright curves the printless steps of Time;
Near and more near your beamy cars approach,
And lessening orbs on lessening orbs encroach; —
Flowers of the sky! ye too to age must yield,
Frail as your silken sisters of the field.
Star after star from Heaven's high arch shall rush,
Suns sink on suns, and systems, systems crush,
Headlong, extinct, to one dark centre fall,
And death and night and chaos mingle all:
— Till o'er the wreck, emerging from the storm,
Immortal Nature lifts her changeful form,
Mounts from her funeral pyre on wings of flame,
And soars and shines, another and the same!

محرك صاروخي

في ملاحظات دونت عام 1779، رسم داروين مخطط محرك صاروخي هيدروجيني-أكسجيني بسيط، يحتوي على خزانات غاز تتصل بغرفة الاحتراق وفوهة التوسيع عن طريق مضخات، a concept not to be seen again until one century later.

In notes dating to 1779, Darwin made a sketch of a simple hydrogen-oxygen rocket engine, with gas tanks connected by plumbing and pumps to an elongated combustion chamber and expansion nozzle, a concept not to be seen again until one century later.[26][27]

أهم مطبوعاته

  • إرازموس داروين، A Botanical Society at Lichfield. A System of Vegetables, according to their classes, orders... translated from the 13th edition of Linnaeus’ Systema Vegetabiliium. 2 vols., 1783, Lichfield, J. Jackson, for Leigh and Sotheby, London.
  • إرازموس داروين، A Botanical Society at Lichfield. The Families of Plants with their natural characters...Translated from the last edition of Linnaeus’ Genera Plantarum. 1787, Lichfield, J. Jackson, for J. Johnson, London.
  • إرازموس داروين، The Botanic Garden, Part I, The Economy of Vegetation. 1791 London, J. Johnson.
  • Part II, The Loves of the Plants. 1789, London, J. Johnson.
  • إرازموس داروين، Zoonomia; or, The Laws of Organic Life, 1794, Part I. London, J. Johnson,
  • Part I-III. 1796, London, J. Johnson.
  • إرازموس داروين، 1797. A plan for the conduct of female education in boarding schools. J. Johnson, Derby. 4to, 128 pages; last two leaves contain a book list, an apology for the work, and an advert for "Miss Parkers School".
  • إرازموس داروين، Phytologia; or, The Philosophy of Agriculture and Gardening. 1800, London, J. Johnson.
  • إرازموس داروين، The Temple of Nature; or, The Origin of Society. 1803, London, J. Johnson.

شجرة العائلة

شهرته

  • Charles Sheffield, an author noted largely for hard science fiction, wrote a number of stories featuring Darwin in a manner quite similar to Sherlock Holmes. These stories were collected in a book, The Amazing Dr. Darwin.
  • Darwin's opposition to slavery in poetry was included by Benjamin Zephaniah in a reading. This inspired the establishment of the Genomic Dub Collective, whose album includes quotations from Erasmus "Ras" Darwin, his grandson Charles Darwin and Haile Selassie.
  • The forgetting of Erasmus' designs for a rocket is a major plot point in Stephan Baxter's tale of alternate universes, Manifold: Origin.
  • Phrases from Darwin's poem The Botanic Garden are used as chapter headings in The Pornographer of Vienna by Lewis Crofts.
  • British poet J.H. Prynne took on the pseudonym Erasmus W. Darwin for his "plant time" bulletins in the pages of Bean News (1972).
  • A building on the Nottingham Trent University Clifton Campus is named after him. It is the centre for science teaching, academic offices and study space.


التخليد

A British encyclopaedia published in 1848 referred to Erasmus and his books and offered this evaluation,

All these works have excited considerable attention … they are far from deserving to sink into neglect and oblivion. The author was unquestionably a man of a highly original turn of mind; he was unusually well read in the physics of his day; he had a singular aptitude for seizing and illustrating natural analogies, and above all he was fully impressed with a sense of the important truths of a universal simplicity and harmony of design throughout the whole [of] creation.[28]

Erasmus Darwin House, his home in Lichfield, Staffordshire, is a museum dedicated to him and his life's work. A secondary school at Burntwood, near Lichfield, was renamed Erasmus Darwin Academy in 2011.

A science building on the Clifton campus of Nottingham Trent University is named after him.[29]

في الأدب الروائي


انظر أيضاً

المصادر

  1. ^ أ ب Graves, Joseph L. The Emperor's New Clothes: Biological Theories of Race at the Millennium. p. 57. Retrieved 2011-09-18. خطأ استشهاد: وسم <ref> غير صالح؛ الاسم "SEAST" معرف أكثر من مرة بمحتويات مختلفة.
  2. ^ ديورانت, ول; ديورانت, أرييل. قصة الحضارة. ترجمة بقيادة زكي نجيب محمود.
  3. ^ Burke's Landed Gentry, Darwin formerly of Downe, 1966
  4. ^ "Darwin, Erasmus (DRWN750E)". A Cambridge Alumni Database. University of Cambridge.
  5. ^ أ ب Duffin, C.J.; Moody, R.T.J.; Gardner-Thorpe, C. (2013). A History of Geology and Medicine. Geological Society London: Geological Society special publication. Geological Society. p. 336. ISBN 978-1-86239-356-1. Retrieved 1 May 2019.
  6. ^ "Erasmus Darwin | British Physician & Natural Philosopher | Britannica". www.britannica.com (in الإنجليزية). Retrieved 2023-09-07.
  7. ^ "Darwin, Erasmus". قاموس أكسفورد للسيَر الوطنية (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/7177. (Subscription or UK public library membership مطلوبة.)
  8. ^ "Darwin Correspondence Project".
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مراجع


سير ذاتية ونقد


قراءات إضافية

  • Darwin, Erasmus. (1794-6). Zoonomia. J. Johnson (reissued by Cambridge University Press, 2009; ISBN 9781108005494)
  • King-Hele, Desmond. 1963. Doctor Darwin. Scribner's, N.Y.
  • King-Hele, Desmond. 1977. Doctor of Revolution: the life and genius of Erasmus Darwin. Faber, London.
  • King-Hele, Desmond (ed) 1981. The Letters of Erasmus Darwin Cambridge University Press.
  • King-Hele, Desmond. 1999. Erasmus Darwin: a life of unequalled achievement Giles de la Mare Publishers.
  • King-Hele, Desmond (ed) 2002. Charles Darwin's 'The Life of Erasmus Darwin Cambridge University Press.
  • Krause, Ernst 1879. Erasmus Darwin, with a preliminary notice by Charles Darwin. Murray, London.
  • Pearson, Hesketh. 1930. Doctor Darwin. Dent, London.
  • Porter, Roy, 1989. 'Erasmus Darwin: doctor of evolution?' in 'History, Humanity and Evolution: Essays for John C. Greene, ed. James R. Moore.
  • Seward, Anna. 1804. Memoirs of the life of Dr. Darwin.
  • Uglow, Jennifer 2003. Lunar Men: the friends who made the future Faber, London.
  • Darwin, Erasmus. (1794–96). Zoonomia. J. Johnson (reissued by Cambridge University Press, 2009; ISBN 978-1-108-00549-4)
  • King-Hele, Desmond, ed. (2007). The collected letters of Erasmus Darwin. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press. ISBN 978-0-521-82156-8. Retrieved 7 March 2015.

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