كاتلين
Catiline | |
|---|---|
 تفصيلة تصوّر كاتلين في فسيفساء چزارى مكاري في قصر ماداما | |
| وُلِدَ | Lucius Sergius Catilina 108 ق.م. |
| توفي | 62 ق.م. |
| القومية | روماني قديم |
| عـُرِف بـ | المؤامرة الكاتلينية الثانية |
لوكيوس سرجيوس كاتلين Lucius Sergius Catiline (عاش 108 ق.م. – 62 ق.م.) كان سياسياً في مجلس الشيوخ الروماني اشتهر بفعلته التي سميت "المؤامرة الكاتلينية" للإطاحة بالجمهورية الرومانية وخصوصاً بسلطة مجلس الشيوخ الأرستقراطي. وفيها جمع شمل الطوائف المنشقة على شيشرون وضمها كلها في قوة سياسية مؤتلفة. فقد كان كثيرون من الفقراء في عهد شيشرون يستمعون إلى الخطباء ينادون بوجوب قيام دولة مثالية، وكان بعض من يستمعون إليهم على إستعداد لأن يستخدموا أساليب العنف في تحقيقها. وكان يعلو عن هؤلاء قليلاً جماعات من العامة خسروا أملاكهم لعجزهم عن أداء ما عليها من رهون. وكان بعض جنود صلا القدامى قد عجزوا عن إستغلال أراضيهم إستغلالاً مربحاً، وكانوا مستعدين للإشتراك في أي إضطراب يتيح لهم فرصة لإنتهاب المال بلا كد. وكان بين الطبقات العليا طائفة من المدنيين المفلسين العاجزين عن أداء ديونهم، والمضاربين الذين فقدوا كل أمل أو رغبة في الوفاء بإلتزاماتهم ، ومنهم من كانت لهم مطامع سياسية ولكنهم وجدوا سبل الرقي تسدها عليهم طائفة من المحافظين طالت آجالهم فوق ما ينبغي لها أن تطول. وكان إلى جانب هؤلاء كلهم عدد قليل من الثوار المخلصين لمثلهم العليا الذين لا يخالجهم شك في أنه لا سبيل إلى تلطيف ما تئن منه الجمهورية الرومانية من فساد وظلم إلا بإنقلاب كامل وثورة جارفة.
النشأة
الخلفية العائلية
Catiline was a member of an ancient patrician family, the gens Sergia, who claimed descent from Sergestus, a Trojan companion of Aeneas.[1] While Sallust says he was one of the nobiles,[2] which implies a consular heritage,[3] the specifics are unclear: no member of the gens Sergia had held the consulship since the second consulship of Gnaeus Sergius Fidenas Coxo in 429 BC; a few other Sergii had served in the consular tribunate, but the last was in 380 BC.[4]
The exact year of Catiline's birth is unknown. From the offices he held it can be deduced that he was born no later than 108 BC, or 106 BC if patricians enjoyed a right to hold magistracies two years earlier than plebeians.[1] Catiline's parents were Lucius Sergius Silus and Belliena.[5] His father was poor by the standards of the aristocracy.[6] His maternal uncle had served as praetor in 105 BC; earlier, Catiline's great-grandfather – Marcus Sergius Silus – had served with distinction as praetor in 197 BC during the Second Punic War.[7]
محاولات الترشح قنصلاً
المؤامرة الكاتلينية
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Antonius, Catiline's ally in the elections of 64 BC, joined with Cicero in a deal where he would take the wealthy and exploitable province of Macedonia (which Cicero had been given) in exchange for cooperation; he therefore broke with Catiline early in the year.[8] In early 63 BC, there were no indications that Catiline was involved in a conspiracy. He was still, however, nursing hopes of an eventual consulship that would be both his birth-right and necessary for his career.
الانتخابات القنصلية
The events of the year 63 BC were not amenable for civil harmony, no matter how much Cicero as consul had been preaching it to the people. Early in the year, a proposal came before the plebs to redistribute lands; it was a proposal that would have alleviated great hardship in a time of economic hardship.[10] Cicero spoke out against it, warning of tyrannical land commissioners and painting the project as selling out the people to the beneficiaries of the Sullan proscriptions.[11] The failure of the land proposal contributed to the conspiracy's support among the people in the coming months.[12]
A trial that year for one Gaius Rabirius for the murder of Lucius Appuleius Saturninus in 100 BC, almost forty years earlier, was possibly a signal from Caesar to the senate against use of the senatus consultum ultimum (a declaration of emergency which gave the consuls political cover to break laws in suppressing civil unrest).[13] Rabirius was convicted by Caesar ("not an impartial judge") by means of an archaic procedure before appealing and then being acquitted by a similarly archaic loophole.[13] A later proposal to overturn Sulla's civil disabilities for the sons of the victims of the proscriptions also was defeated with Cicero's help; Cicero argued that repeal would cause political upheaval. This failure "drove some of the men concerned into supporting Catiline" in his conspiracy.[14]
That summer, Catiline stood again for the consulship for 62 BC; his candidacy was accepted by Cicero. Against him were three other major candidates: Decimus Junius Silanus, Lucius Licinius Murena, and Servius Sulpicius Rufus. Cicero supported Sulpicius' bid as a friend and fellow lawyer, which directly harmed Catiline's chances, since both men were patricians and therefore were legally barred from both holding the consulship.[15] Bribery was again rampant, after the senate moved again to pass legislation to stamp it out, Cicero and Antonius as consuls were successful in moving the lex Tullia increasing penalties and enumerating forbidden electoral practices.[16]
Just before the elections, Cicero alleges Catiline engaged in demagoguery and attempted to build up his bona fides with the poor and dispossessed men of Rome and Italy, including himself among their number,[17] advocating the wholesale abolition of all existing debts (tabulae novae).[18]
At the electoral comitia, Cicero presided, surrounded by a bodyguard and wearing an ostentatious cuirass, to signal his belief that Catiline posed a threat to his person and public safety.[19] Sallust reports that Catiline promised his supporters that he would kill the rich, but this supposed promise is likely ahistorical.[20] No contemporary source indicates that Catiline supported land reform.[21] The comitia returned as consuls-designate Decimus Junius Silanus and Lucius Licinius Murena.[22] After his second defeat, Catiline seems to have run out of money and must have been abandoned by his former supporters such as Crassus and Caesar.[23]
المؤامرة
On 18 or 19 October, Crassus and two other senators visited Cicero's house on the Oppian Hill (near the ruins of the Colosseum) and delivered to the consuls anonymous letters, warning that Catiline was planning a massacre of leading politicians, and advising them to leave the city. Cicero convened the senate and had them read aloud.[19] A few days later, on 21 or 22 October, an ex-praetor reported news that an ex-Sullan centurion – Gaius Manlius – who had supported Catiline's bid for the consulship had raised an army in Etruria.[24] The senate acted immediately, usually dated to the 21st, to pass a senatus consultum ultimum directing the consuls to take whatever actions they believed necessary for state security. When news of the decree arrived to Manlius he declared an open rebellion.[24]
Some modern scholars reject a connection between Manlius and Catiline at this early point, arguing that Manlius' rebellion may have been separate from Catiline's alleged conspiracy and that the conspiracy only came into actual fruition when Catiline joined Manlius' rebellion when leaving Rome for exile and seeing nothing to lose. There are, however, no indications of this in the ancient sources.[25]
Catiline's indebtedness – if he was in fact indebted, there is little evidence one way or the other[26] – was not the sole cause of his conspiring: "wounded pride and fierce ambition" played a great role in his decision-making.[27] Many of the senatorial members of the conspiracy were men who had been ejected from the senate for immorality, corruption, or seen their careers stall out (especially in attempts to reach the consulship).[28] The men who joined Manlius' rebellion were largely two groups: poor farmers who had been dispossessed by Sulla's confiscations after the civil war and ruined Sullan veterans seeking more riches.[29] Cicero, in his invectives, naturally focused on the ruined Sullan veterans, who were unpopular; but at the end, Catiline likely kept only the support of the dispossessed Etruscans who had "nowhere else to go".[30] Altogether, these men had mixed backgrounds and no "single-minded purpose [can] readily be ascribed" to them.[31]
الهرب من المدينة
While the consuls fortified central Italy, reports also filtered in of slave revolts in the south. Two generals[أ] who were waiting for their triumphs to be approved were then dispatched with men to garrison the northern approaches to Rome and southern Italy.[32] Catiline for his part remained in Rome since the letters sent to Crassus were anonymous and thus insufficient to prove Catiline's involvement.[32]
On 6 November, Catiline held a secret meeting in Rome at the house of Marcus Porcius Laeca where he planned to go to Manlius' army, for other members of the conspiracy to take charge of the nascent revolts elsewhere in Italy, for conspirators in Rome to set fires in the city, and for two specific conspirators to assassinate Cicero the next morning.[33] Cicero exaggerates Catiline's supposed intention to raze the city as a means to turn the urban population against him – a story further embellished in Plutarch[34] – it is more likely that Catiline's fires were intended only to create exploitable confusion for his army.[33]
The next day, on 7 November, the assassins found Cicero's house shut against them and Cicero convened the senate later that day at the Temple of Jupiter Stator reporting the threat to his life and then delivering the First Catilinarian denouncing Catiline. Catiline, who was already planning to leave the city, offered to go into exile if the senate would so decree. After Cicero refused to bring up such a motion, Catiline protested his innocence and insulted Cicero's ancestry, calling him a "squatter".[35] He thereafter left the city, claiming that he was going into voluntary exile at Massilia "to spare his country a civil war".[36] On his departure, he sent a letter to his old friend and ally Quintus Lutatius Catulus Capitolinus, which Sallust copied into Bellum Catilinae.[37] In the letter, Catiline defends himself as an injured party who took up the cause of the less fortunate in accordance with his patrician forebears' custom; he vehemently denies that he goes into exile due to his debts and commits his wife Orestilla to Catulus' care.[38]
He left the city on the road to Massilia, but in Etruria, he went to a weapons cache before diverting for Faesulae where he met up with Manlius' forces. Upon his arrival, he proclaimed himself consul and adopted consular regalia. When news of this reached Rome, the senate declared Catiline and Manlius hostes (public enemies) and dispatched Antonius at the head of an army to subdue him.[39]
الوفاة
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In late November, Antonius' forces approached from the south. He decamped from Faesulae and moved near the mountains but remained close enough to the town to be in striking distance. When Antonius' forces arrived in the vicinity of the town, he avoided battle.[41]
Catiline's coconspirators in Rome had been caught out by Cicero with the aid of some Gallic envoys.[42] After a fierce senate debate, they were executed without trial on 5 December.[43] When news of their death arrived to Catiline's camp, much of his army melted away, leaving him with perhaps a bit more than three thousand men. Hoping to escape into Gaul, his escape from Italy was blocked when Quintus Caecilius Metellus Celer – proconsul in Cisalpine Gaul[44] – garrisoned the Apennine passes near Bononia.[45]
Antonius kept his men relatively docile near Faesulae, but after he received reinforcements from then-quaestor Publius Sestius in the last days of December, he moved out. Catiline, for his part, seeing his escape blocked, turned south to face Antonius, perhaps believing that Antonius would not fight as hard. They met at Pistoria, modern day Pistoia. Descending from the heights, he offered battle to Antonius' army, possibly on 3 January 62 BC.[46]
On the day of the battle, Antonius gave operational command to Marcus Petreius (Sallust claims he was stricken with gout[47]), an experienced lieutenant,[48] who broke through the Catilinarian centre with the praetorian cohort, forcing Catiline's men to flight.[49] Catiline and his diehard supporters fought bravely and were annihilated:[50] "they were desperate men who did not wish to survive their defeat".[48]
وفيما يلي ما رواه سالوست:
When the battle was ended it became evident what boldness and resolution had pervaded Catiline's army. For almost every man covered with his body, when life was gone, the position which he had taken when alive at the beginning of the conflict. A few, indeed, in the centre, whom the praetorian cohort had scattered, lay a little apart from the rest, but the wounds even of these were in front. But Catiline was found far in advance of his men amid a heap of slain foemen, still breathing slightly, and showing in his face the indomitable spirit which had animated him when alive.[51]
شخصيته
وهو رجل لا نعرف عنه إلا ما يصفه به أعداؤه- أي ما نستقيه من تاريخ حركته كما كتبها سلست Sallust الغني صاحب الملايين ، وما نقرأه من إتهامات ومثالب مقذعة في خطب شيشرون ضد كاتلين.
أما سلست فيصفه بأنه "روح ملطخة بالإجرام، هو والآلهة والناس على طرفي نقيض ، لا يجد الراحة في نومه ولا في يقظته لأن ضميره قد قسا عليه فأتلف عقله المضني المُنهك. وكان هذا سبباً في صفرة وجهه، وحمرة عينيه، وهرجلته في مشيه، فتارة يسرع وتارة يبطئ؛ وملاك القول أن وجهه ونظراته لا تترك مجالاً للشك في أن بعقله خبالاً". ذلك وصف يوحي بالصورة التي يرسمها لأعدائهم في الحرب أقوام يكافحون في سبيل الحياة والسلطان؛ حتى إذا ما وضعت الحرب أوزارها هذبت الصورة شيئاً فشيئاً. أما صورة كاتلين فلم تهذب قط ؛ فقد اتهم في شبابه بإفتراع عذراء ڤستية، هي أخت غير شقيقة لزوجة شيشرون الأولى، وبرأت المحكمة العذراء من هذه التهمة ولكن ألسنة السوء لم تبرئ منها كاتلين، بل فعلت عكس هذا إذ أضافت إلى التهمة الأولى تهمة ثانية هي أنه قتل ابنه ليرضى بقتله عشيقته الغيور. ولسنا نجد ما تعارض به هذه القصص إلا قولنا إن عامة الناس في روما- "الغوغاء اليائسين الجياع" كما يسميهم شيشرون- ظلوا أربع سنين بعد وفاة كاتلين ينثرون الأزهار على قبره.
التصويرات الثقافية
- At least two major dramatists have written tragedies about Catiline: Ben Jonson, the English Jacobean playwright, wrote Catiline His Conspiracy in 1611, depicting Catiline as "a sadistic anti-hero";[52] Catiline was the first play by the Norwegian "father of modern drama" Henrik Ibsen, written in the aftermath of the 1848 revolutions and depicting Catiline as hero struggling against his world's corruption.[53]
- Antonio Salieri wrote an opera tragicomica in two acts on the subject of the Catilinarian conspiracy entitled Catilina to a libretto by Giambattista Casti in 1792. The work was left unperformed until 1994 due to its political implications during the French Revolution. Here, serious drama and politics were blended with high and low comedy: the plot centered on a love affair between Catiline and a daughter of Cicero as well as the historic political situation.
- Steven Saylor's 1993 novel Catilina's Riddle revolves around the intrigue between Catiline and Cicero in 63 BC. Catiline also plays a major character in Steven Saylor's short story "The House of the Vestals".
- Catiline's conspiracy and Cicero's consular actions figure prominently in the novel Caesar's Women by Colleen McCullough as a part of her Masters of Rome series.
- SPQR II: The Catiline Conspiracy, by John Maddox Roberts, discusses Catiline's conspiracy.
- Robert Harris' 2006 book Imperium, based on Cicero's letters, covers the developing career of Cicero with many references to his increasing interactions with Catiline. The sequel, Lustrum (issued in the United States as Conspirata), deals with the five years surrounding the Catilinarian conspiracy.
- The Roman Traitor or the Days of Cicero, Cato and Catiline: A True Tale of the Republic by Henry William Herbert originally published in 1853 in two volumes.
- A Pillar of Iron by Taylor Caldwell, published in 1965, tells of the life of Cicero, especially in relation to Catiline and his conspiracy.
- A Slave Of Catiline is a book by Paul Anderson that tells of a slave who helps and then hinders Catiline's conspiracy.
- A novel on the conspiracy, The Fall of the Republic, written by Scott Savitz, was published in September 2020.
- Bertolt Brecht's unfinished novel The Business Affairs of Mr Julius Caesar provides a fictionalised account of the Catilinarian conspiracy in which Caesar and Crassus are alleged to be involved for financial gain.
- Adam Driver portrays Cesar Catilina, a character from Francis Ford Coppola's 2024 sci-fi epic film Megalopolis, which is a fictionalised interpretation of the Catiline Conspiracy set in an imagined modern futuristic America. Driver stars opposite Giancarlo Esposito, who portrays a character named Mayor Franklyn Cicero. In the film, Driver's character is pitted against Esposito's character in a rivalry and battle for political control of New Rome. The film also centers around Cesar Catilina's love affair with Mayor Cicero's daughter, Julia Cicero played by Nathalie Emmanuel.[54]
الهامش
- ^ أ ب Berry 2020, p. 10.
- ^ Sall. Cat., 5.1.
- ^ Badian 2012a.
- ^ See Digital Prosopography of the Roman Republic s.v. "Sergius".
- ^ Zmeskal 2009, p. 61.
- ^ Münzer, Friedrich (1927). "Sergius 39". Realencyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft (in الألمانية). Vol. II A, 2. Stuttgart: Butcher. col. 1719.
- ^ Berry 2020, pp. 10–11.
- ^ Berry 2020, p. 20.
- ^ Berry 2020, pp. 21–25.
- ^ Gruen 1995, p. 426; Beard 2015, pp. 45–47.
- ^ Wiseman 1992, p. 351.
- ^ Gruen 1995, p. 425.
- ^ أ ب Wiseman 1992, p. 352.
- ^ Wiseman 1992, p. 353.
- ^ Berry 2020, p. 21.
- ^ Berry 2020, p. 25.
- ^ Berry 2020, p. 26.
- ^ Berry 2020, p. 29.
- ^ أ ب Berry 2020, p. 31.
- ^ Berry 2020, p. 30.
- ^ Gruen 1995, p. 429 n. 110.
- ^ Broughton 1952, p. 172.
- ^ Berry 2020, pp. 26, 30.
- ^ أ ب Berry 2020, p. 32.
- ^ Berry 2020, p. 32; Seager 1973, pp. 240–41; Waters 1970, p. 201.
- ^ Waters 1970, p. 213 n. 43.
- ^ Gruen 1995, p. 420.
- ^ Gruen 1995, pp. 417–19.
- ^ Gruen 1995, pp. 424–25.
- ^ Berry 2020, p. 28.
- ^ Gruen 1995, p. 422.
- ^ أ ب ت Berry 2020, p. 33.
- ^ أ ب Berry 2020, p. 34.
- ^ Berry 2020, p. 34
- ^ Berry 2020, p. 36, citing Sall. Cat., 31.7–8.
- ^ Berry 2020, p. 37.
- ^ Berry 2020, p. 38, citing Sall. Cat., 35.
- ^ Berry 2020, pp. 38–41.
- ^ Berry 2020, p. 42.
- ^ Crawford 1974, pp. 441–42; Berry 2020, pp. 52–53.
- ^ Sumner 1963, p. 215.
- ^ Berry 2020, pp. 42–46.
- ^ Berry 2020, p. 50.
- ^ Broughton 1952, p. 176.
- ^ Sumner 1963, pp. 215–16.
- ^ Sumner 1963, p. 217.
- ^ Sall. Cat., 59.4.
- ^ أ ب Wiseman 1992, p. 360.
- ^ Sall. Cat., 60.
- ^ Berry 2020, p. 52.
- ^ Sall. Cat., 61.
- ^ Beard 2015, p. 50.
- ^ Beard 2015, p. 49.
- ^ "MEGALOPOLIS". Festival de Cannes. Retrieved 5 May 2024.
المصادر
ديورانت, ول; ديورانت, أرييل. قصة الحضارة. ترجمة بقيادة زكي نجيب محمود.
- Appian, تاريخ روماني
- Dio Cassius Cocceianus, تاريخ روماني
- Gaius Sallustius Crispus, Bellum Catilinae
- Marcus Tullius Cicero, In Catilinam
- Marcus Tullius Cicero, Pro Caelio
- Marcus Tullius Cicero, Pro Murena
- Marcus Tullius Cicero, Pro Sulla
- Quintus Tullius Cicero, Commentariolum Petitionis
- Duane A. March, "Cicero and the 'Gang of Five'," Classical World, volume 82 (1989) 225-234
وصلات خارجية
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