امبراطورية طرابيزوند

Empire of Trebizond امبراطورية طرابيزوند
1204–1461
النسر الامبراطوري البيزنطي
امبراطورية طرابيزوند (بالبنفسجي) والدويلات المجاورة عام 1300.
الحالة	خليفة الامبراطورية البيزنطية، تابعة للامبراطورية المنغولية (1243–1336)
Capital	طرابيزوند
اللغات المشتركة	اليونانية (الرسمية) اللازية
الدين	الأرثوذكسية الشرقية
الحكومة	ملكية مطلقة
الامبراطور1
• 1204–1222	ألخيوس الأول
• 1459–1461	ديڤد
الحقبة التاريخية	أواخر العصور الوسطى
• Established	1204
• Disestablished	15 أغسسط 1461
سبقها تلاها بيزنطة تحت الحكم الأنگلوي إيالة طرابيزوند گزاريا (المستعمراة الجنوية) إمارة تيودرو
1 اللقب الكامل للأباطرة الطرابيزونيين بعد 1261 كان "باسيليوس المخلِص وأوتوقراطور عموم الشرق والأيبيريين وپراتيا"

امبراطورية طرابيزوند أو الامبراطورية الطرابيزونتية كانت ملكية ازدهرت في القرون 13 حتى 15، وكانت تضم الركن الشمالي الشرقي من الأناضول وجنوب القرم. تشكلت في الأصل أثناء ثورة قامت ضد اغتصاب العرش الامبراطوري من قبل أحفاد الامبراطور أندرونيكوس الأول كومننوس، طرابيزوند (طرابزون، تركيا حالياً، التي اشتق اسمها من اسم الامبراطورية) لتصبح الدولة الخليفة اليونانية البيزنطية التي تأسست بعد سقوط الامبراطورية الرومانية الشرقية (البيزنطية) في الحملة الصليبية الرابعة، مع امبراطورية نيقية واستبدادية إپيروس. أصر أباطرة طرابيزوند على مطالبتهم بالعرش الامبراطوري لعقود بعد معاودة الغزو النيقي للقسطنطينية عام 1261.

كانت الملكية الطرابيزونية من أطول الدول التي خلفت الامبراطورية البيزنطية عمراً. تهالك استبدادية إپيروس ببطيء، وسرعان ما احتلتها الامبراطورية البيزنطية المستردة (ح. 1340)، ثم أصبحت تابعة صربية إلى أن ورثها الإيطاليون لاحقاً، وفي النهاية سقطت في يد الدولة العثمانية عام 1479، having long ceased to contest the Byzantine throne. بينما أصبحت الامبراطورية النيقية ظلاً للامبراطورية البيزنطية السابقة، وصلت لنهايتها عام 1543 مع غزو القسطنطينية على يد الدولة العثمانية. استمرت امبراطورية طرابيزوند حتى عام 1461 عندما غزاها السلطان العثماني محمد الثاني بعد حصارها لمدة شهر وأخذ حاكمها وعائلته أسرى. امبراطورية تيودورو القرمية، أحد فروع طرابيزوند، استمرت 14 سنة أخرى، حتى سقطت في يد العثمانيين عام 1475.

 الأصول

الدويلات التي تأسست بعد سقوط الامبراطورية البيزنطية في أعقاب الحملة الصليبة الرابعة: امبراطورية طرابيزوند، امبراطورية نيقية، واستبدادية إپيروس.

Trebizond already had a long history of autonomous rule before it became the center of a small empire in the Late Middle Ages. Due to its natural harbours, defensible topography and access to silver and copper mines, Trebizond became the pre-eminent Greek colony on the eastern Black Sea shore soon after its founding. Its remoteness from Roman capitals gave local rulers the opportunity to advance their own interest. In the centuries before the founding of the empire the city had been under control of the local Gabras family, which – while officially still remaining part of the Byzantine Empire – minted its own coinage.

The rulers of Trebizond called themselves Megas Komnenos ("Great Comnenus") and – like their counterparts in the other two Byzantine successor states, the Empire of Nicaea and the Despotate of Epirus – initially claimed supremacy as "Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans". However, after Michael VIII Palaiologos of Nicaea recaptured Constantinople in 1261, the Komnenian use of the style "Emperor" became a sore point. In 1282, John II Komnenos, as a result of a treaty with Michael, stripped off his imperial regalia before the walls of Constantinople before entering to marry Michael's daughter, accepting his legal title of despot. However, his successors used a version of his title, "Emperor and Autocrat of the entire East, of the Iberians and the Perateia" until the Empire's end in 1461.

مخطط حصن طرابيزوند.

 حتى الحروب الأهلية

ألخيوس الثالث من الخريسبول الذي منحه لكاتدرائية ديونوسيو على جبل أثوس.

 من الحروب الأهلية حتى نهاية القرن 14

 في القرن 15

طرابزون والدويلات المجاورة عام 1400.

The last years of the fourteenth century were characterized by the increasing Turkish threat. This threat was not from the small Turkmen emirates that bordered Trebizond, but from the dynasty of the Osmanli, a new Turkish power emerging from western Anatolia that would soon consolidate the Ottoman Empire. Although their expansion was temporarily checked by Tamerlane at the Battle of Ankara in 1402, by the 1430s the Ottomans had recovered their fortunes, seizing large segments of Greece and finally capturing Constantinople itself on 29 May 1453. Manuel III (1390–1417), the second son and successor of Alexios III, had allied himself with Tamerlane, but the mighty conqueror soon left Anatolia, and the empire he had built crumbled with his death. Manuel's son Alexios IV (1417–1429) continued the tradition of political marriages by marrying two of his daughters to rulers of two neighboring Muslim empires: Jihan Shah, khan of the Kara Koyunlu, and Ali Beg, khan of the Ak Koyunlu. His eldest daughter Maria became the third wife of the Byzantine Emperor John VIII Palaiologos.

Alexios IV's eldest son, John IV (1429–1459), could not help but see that his Empire would soon share the fate of Constantinople. The Ottoman sultan Murad II first attempted to take the capital by the sea in 1442, but high surf made the landings difficult and the attempt was repulsed. While Murad's son and successor, Mehmed II, was away laying siege to Belgrade in 1456, the Ottoman governor of Amasya attacked Trebizond, and although defeated, he took many prisoners and extracted a heavy tribute. A Genoese document records the seizure of one of their ships at that port in 1437 by a military Galley on the orders of Emperor John IV.

John IV prepared for the eventual assault by forging alliances. He sent an envoy to the Council of Florence in 1439, the humanist George Amiroutzes, which resulted in the proclamation of the Union of the Catholic and Orthodox Churches, but this proclamation brought little help. He gave his daughter Theodora (also known by the name of Despina Khatun) to the son of his brother-in-law, Uzun Hasan, khan of the Ak Koyunlu, in return for his promise to defend Trebizond. He also secured promises of help from the Turkish emirs of Sinope and Karamania, and from the king and princes of Georgia. Through Theodora and the daughter of Alexios IV of Trebizond (also named Theodora), the Safavid dynasty of Iran that succeeded the Ak Koyunlu, would be of direct partial Pontic Greek ethnicity from its very beginning, Ismail I being the grandson of Theodora.

After John's death in 1459, his brother David came to power. David intrigued with various European powers for help against the Ottomans, speaking of wild schemes that included the conquest of Jerusalem. Mehmed II eventually heard of these intrigues and was further provoked to action by David's demand that Mehmed remit the tribute imposed on his brother.

Mehmed's response came in the summer of 1461. He collected a sizable army at Bursa, and in a surprise move marched on Sinope, whose emir quickly surrendered. Then the sultan moved south across eastern Anatolia to neutralize Uzun Hasan. Having isolated Trebizond, Mehmed swept down upon it before the inhabitants knew he was coming, and placed it under siege. The city held out for a month before David surrendered on 15 August 1461. With the fall of Trebizond, the last independent remnant of the Byzantine Empire, as well as the Roman Empire from which the Byzantine Empire sprang, was the Empire of Trebizond's offshoot, the Principality of Theodoro. On December 30, 1475, it would also fall to Ottoman rule.

A contemporary depiction of the fall of Trebizond by Apollonio di Giovanni di Tomaso

 الثقافة

 الدين

Christianity strongly influenced society in the Empire of Trebizond. According to the Acts of Vazelon, which were written by contemporary monks, most peasants in the Matzouka region of the Empire had first names relating to Christian religious figures. Last names often referred to Christian saints, trades, and place names.

In the relatively limited territory of the kingdom of the Grand Komnenoi (known as the "Empire of Trebizond") there was enough room for three dioceses: Trebizond, which was the only diocese established far in the past, Cerasous and Rizaion in Lazika, both formed as upgraded bishoprics. All three dioceses survived the Ottoman conquest (1461) and generally operated until the 17th century, when the dioceses of Cerasous and Rizaion were abolished. The diocese of Rizaion and the bishopric of Of were abolished at the time due to the Islamisation of the Laz and of the region respectively. Possibly the diocese of Cerasous was deactivated for the same reasons.

 الاقتصاد

The economy of the Empire of Trebizond (1204–1461) was defined by its strategic position at the southeastern terminus of the historic Silk Road and its control of the southern coast of the Black Sea. Inheriting the commercial infrastructure of the Byzantine province of Chaldia, the empire flourished as a major entrepôt, funneling the wealth of Persia, Armenia, and the broader Asian interior towards Genoese, Venetian, and other Western European markets. While its political power was often confined to a narrow coastal strip, Trebizond’s prosperity was sustained by three pillars: its pivotal role in long-distance transit trade, the export of its own rich natural resources—notably Pontic silver, alum, and agricultural goods like wine and hazelnuts—and its vibrant, autonomous merchant quarters. This commercial wealth, mediated through a sophisticated monetary system and treaties with Italian maritime republics, underpinned the Trapezuntine state and its cultural achievements, allowing it to outlast both the Byzantine Empire and the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum before its eventual conquest by the Ottoman Empire in 1461.

 في الثقافة الشعبية

In the 19th-century Johannes Rietstap popularized Argent, three bars Sable as the arms of Trebizond and the Komnenoi, based on older medieval sources, however, no contemporary sources support these arms, and medieval armorials are known to conjure fanciful arms for remote regions

The Empire of Trebizond acquired a reputation in Western Europe for being "enriched by the trade from Persia and the East that passed through its capital," according to Steven Runciman, "and by the silver-mines in the hills behind, and famed for the beauty of its princesses." Donald Nicol echoes Runciman's observations: "Most of the emperors were blessed with a progeny of marriageable daughters, and the beauty of the ladies of Trebizond was as legendary as the wealth of their dowries." Its wealth and exotic location endowed a lingering fame on the polity. Cervantes described the eponymous hero of his Don Quixote as "imagining himself for the valour of his arm already crowned at least Emperor of Trebizond". Rabelais had his character Picrochole, the ruler of Piedmont, declare: "I want also to be Emperor of Trebizond." Other allusions and works set in Trebizond continue into the 20th century.

In Italian, there exists the expression "to lose the Trebizond" (perdere la Trebisonda) which means "to be bewildered". Trebizond was a port reachable by all the routes that crossed the Black Sea, and therefore a safe shelter in case of storms.

 أسرة الكومننوس الكبار

الاسم	صورة	من	إلى	ملاحظات
ألخيوس الأول الكبير		1204	1 فبراير 1222
أندرونيكوس الأول گيدوس		1 فبراير 1222	1235
أيونس الأول أخوكوس		1235	1238
مانول الأول الكبير، "القائد الكبير"، "الأكثر حظاً"		1238	مارس 1263
أندروكينوس الثاني كومننس		مارس 1263	1266
گورگيوس كومننس		1266	1280	خُلع
إيانوس الثاني الكبير كومننس		1280	1284	فترة 1
تيودورا الكبيرة كومننس		1284	1285
إيونس الثاني الكبير كومننس		1285	16 أغسطس 1297	فترة 2
ألخيوس الثاني الكبير كومننس		16 أغسطس 1297	1330
أندرونيكوس الثالث الكبير كومننس		1330	8 يناير 1332
مانول الثاني الكبير كومننس		8 يناير 1332	سبتمبر 1332	امبراطور لثمان شهور.
باسيليوس الكبير كومننس		سبتمبر 1332	6 أبريل 1340
إرينه پالايولوينا		6 أبريل 1340	17 يوليو 1341	أرملة باسيليوس.
آنا أناكوتولو		17 يوليو 1341	4 سبتمبر 1342	ابنة ألخيوس.
إيونس الثالث الكبير كومننس		4 سبتمبر 1342	3 مايو 1344
ميخائل الكبير كومننس		3 مايو 1344	13 ديسمبر 1349	والد إيونس الثالث.
ألخيوس الثالث الكبير كومننس		13 ديسمبر 1349	20 مارس 1390
مانول الثالث الكبير كومننس		20 مارس 1390	5 مارس 1417
ألخيوس الرابع الكبير كومننس		5 مارس 1417	1429	يزعم وليام ميلر وڤ. لورنت أن ألخيوس كان قد قُتل في أكتوبر 1429. مؤخراً، زعم أنتوني براير بناءاً على دليل جديد أن ألخيوس قد قُتل في 26 أبريل من العام نفسه.
إيونس الرابع الكبير كومننس		1429	1460	تقترح الوثائق تاريخ وفاة يوحنا من 1458 حتى 1460. التاريخ المقترح هنا مأخوذ من أحدث منشور ذو علاقة.
ديڤد الأول كومننس		1460	1461

 قادة طرابزون

• George Amiroutzes
• جورج من طرابزون
• Gregory Choniades
• Johannes Bessarion
• John Lazaropoulos
• John Xiphilinos
• Michael Panaretos

 انظر أيضاً

• آيا صوفيا، طرابزون
• كاتدرائية سوملا
• الأسرة الصفوية، (جزئياً) من أصل يوناني پونطي طرابيزوني من بدايتها المبكرة)
• دوروثي دنت، روائية تاريخية اسكتلندية، معظم أحداث كتابها ربيع الرام يدور في طرابيزوند عند سقوطها.
• لورس شونوڤر، روائي تاريخي أمريكي، معظم أحداث كتابه النصل المصقول يدور في طرابيزوند في قمة مجدها.

 مراجع وأبحاث

 مراجع أساسية

• Johannes Bessarion: The praise of Trebizond
• Michael Panaretos: Chronicle

 مراجع ثانوية

• Anthony Bryer & David Winfield, The Byzantine Monuments and Topography of the Pontos (DOS. XX), vol. 1–2, Washington, 1985.
• Anthony Bryer, Peoples and Settlement in Anatolia and the Caucasus, 800–1900, Variorum collected studies series, London, 1988.
• Bryer, Anthony (1980). The Empire of Trebizond and the Pontos. London: Variorum Reprints. ISBN 978-0-86078-062-5.
• Jakob Philipp Fallmerayer, Geschichte des Kaiserthums Trapezunt (Munich, 1827–1848)
• George Finlay The History of Greece, from Its Conquest by the Crusaders to Its Conquest by the Turks, and of the Empire of Trebizond: 1204–1461. Edinburgh: Blackwood, 1851.
• Émile Janssens. Trébizonde en Colchide. Bruxelles: Presses universitaires de Bruxelles, 1969,
• Sergei Karpov. L' impero di Trebisonda, Venezia, Genova e Roma, 1204–1461. Rapporti politici, diplomatici e commerciali. Roma, 1986, 321 P.
• Sergei Karpov. Трапезундская империя и западноевропейские государства, 1204–1461. ("The Empire of Trebizond and the nations of Western Europe, 1204–1461".) Moscow, 1981, 231 pp.
• Sergei Karpov. История Трапезундской империи ("A history of the empire of Trebizond"). Saint Petersburg, 2007, 656 pp.
• William Miller, Trebizond: The Last Greek Empire, (1926; repr. Chicago: Argonaut Publishers, 1968)
• Donald Queller, Thomas F. Madden, The Fourth Crusade: The Conquest of Constantinople, University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia, 2nd ed., 1997. ISBN 0-8122-3387-5
• Savvides, Alexios G. K. (2009). Ιστορία της Αυτοκρατορίας των Μεγάλων Κομνηνών της Τραπεζούντας (1204-1461). 2η Έκδοση με προσθήκες (in Greek). Thessaloniki: Kyriakidis Brothers S.A. ISBN 978-960-467-121-2. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |trans_title= ignored (|trans-title= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: unrecognized language (link)
• Rustam Shukurov. Великие Комнины и Восток (1204—1461) ("The Megas Komnenos and the Orient (1204–1461)"). Saint Petersburg, 2001, 446 pp (in Russian), ISBN 5-89329-337-1
• Levan Urushadze, The Comnenus of Trabizond and the Bagrationi dynasty of Georgia. — J. "Tsiskari", Tbilisi, No 4, 1991, pp. 144–148: in Georgian.
• Fyodor Uspensky, From the history of the Empire of Trabizond (Ocherki iz istorii Trapezuntskoy Imperii), Leningrad, 1929, 160 pp: a monograph in Russian.
• Zehiroglu, Ahmet. M. (2016). Trabzon İmparatorluğu 2 (in Turkish). Trabzon: Lazika Yayin Kolektifi. ISBN 978-605-4567-52-2. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |trans_title= ignored (|trans-title= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: unrecognized language (link)