المعرفة

بطارية فوسفات الليثيوم حديد

بطارية فوسفات الليثيوم حديد ( lithium iron phosphate battery ؛ بطارية LiFePO 4) أو بطارية LFP (lithium ferrophosphate) هي نوع من lithium-ion battery using lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO 4) as the cathode material, and a graphitic carbon electrode with a metallic backing as the anode. The energy density of an LFP battery is lower than that of other common lithium ion battery types such as Nickel Manganese Cobalt (NMC) and Nickel Cobalt Aluminum (NCA), and also has a lower operating voltage. Because of its lower cost, low toxicity, long cycle life and other factors, LFP batteries are finding a number of roles in vehicle use, utility scale stationary applications, and backup power.[6] LFP batteries are cobalt-free.[7]

بطارية فوسفات الليثيوم حديد
TIM图片20201018135058.jpg
AA size lithium iron phosphate battery (right). The voltage of this type of battery is about twice that of an alkaline battery . In order to prevent damage to the device, it needs to be used with a spacer (left).
الطاقة المحددة90–160 Wh/kg (320–580 J/g or kJ/kg)[1]
كثافة الطاقة325 Wh/L (1200 kJ/L)[1]
القدرة المحددةaround 200 W/kg[2]
سعر-الطاقة/المستهلك1-4 Wh/US$[3][4]
تحمل الزمن> 10 years
تحمل الدورة2,750–12,000[5] cycles
جهد الخلية الإسمي3.2 V

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

التاريخ

المقالة الرئيسية: فوسفات الليثيوم حديد

LiFePO 4 is a natural mineral of the olivine family (triphylite). Arumugam Manthiram and John B. Goodenough first identified the polyanion class of cathode materials for lithium ion batteries.[8][9][10] LiFePO 4 was then identified as a cathode material belonging to the polyanion class for use in batteries in 1996 by Padhi et al.[11][12] Reversible extraction of lithium from LiFePO 4 and insertion of lithium into FePO 4 was demonstrated. Because of its low cost, non-toxicity, the natural abundance of iron, its excellent thermal stability, safety characteristics, electrochemical performance, and specific capacity (170 mA·h/g, or 610 C/g) it has gained considerable market acceptance.[13][14]

The chief barrier to commercialization was its intrinsically low electrical conductivity. This problem was overcome by reducing the particle size, coating the LiFePO 4 particles with conductive materials such as carbon nanotubes,[15][16] or both. This approach was developed by Michel Armand and his coworkers.[17] Another approach by Yet Ming Chiang's group consisted of doping[13] LFP with cations of materials such as aluminium, niobium, and zirconium.

Negative electrodes (anode, on discharge) made of petroleum coke were used in early lithium-ion batteries; later types used natural or synthetic graphite.[18]


المواصفات

 
Multiple Lithium Iron Phosphate modules are wired in series and parallel to create a 2800Ah 52V battery module. Total battery capacity is 145.6 kWh. Note the large, solid tinned copper busbar connecting the modules together. This busbar is rated for 700 amps DC to accommodate the high currents generated in a 48 volt DC system.
 
Lithium Iron Phosphate modules, each 700 Ah amp-hours 3.25 volts. Two modules are wired in parallel to create a single 3.25 V 1400 Ah battery pack with a capacity of 4.55 kWh.
  • Cell voltage
    • Minimum discharge voltage = 2.5 V[19]
    • Working voltage = 3.0 ~ 3.2 V
    • Maximum charge voltage = 3.65 V[20]
  • Volumetric energy density = 220 Wh/L (790 kJ/L)
  • Gravimetric energy density > 90 Wh/kg[21] (> 320 J/g). Up to 160 Wh/kg[1] (580 J/g).
  • Cycle life from 2,700 to more than 10,000 cycles depending on conditions.[5]

المزايا والعيوب

The LFP battery uses a lithium-ion-derived chemistry and shares many advantages and disadvantages with other lithium-ion battery chemistries. However, there are significant differences.

More abundant constituents with lower human and environmental impact

LFP contain neither nickel[22] nor cobalt, both of which are supply-constrained and expensive. As with lithium, human rights[23] and environmental[24] concerns have been raised concerning the use of cobalt. Environmental concerns have also been raised regarding the extraction of nickel.[25]

Price

In 2020, the lowest reported LFP cell prices were $80/kWh (12.5Wh/$) .[26]

A 2020 report published by the Department of Energy compared the costs of large scale energy storage systems built with LFP vs NMC. It found that the cost per kwh of LFP batteries was about 6% less than NMC, and it projected that the LFP cells would last about 67% longer (more cycles). Because of differences between the cell's characteristics, the cost of some other components of the storage system would be somewhat higher for LFP, but in balance it still remains less costly per kwh than NMC.[27]

Better ageing and cycle-life characteristics

LFP chemistry offers a considerably longer cycle life than other lithium-ion chemistries. Under most conditions it supports more than 3,000 cycles, and under optimal conditions it supports more than 10,000 cycles. NMC batteries support about 1,000 to 2,300 cycles, depending on conditions.[5]

LFP cells experience a slower rate of capacity loss (aka greater calendar-life) than lithium-ion battery chemistries such as cobalt (LiCoO 2) or manganese spinel (LiMn 2O 4) lithium-ion polymer batteries (LiPo battery) or lithium-ion batteries.[28]

Viable alternative to lead-acid batteries

Because of the nominal 3.2 V output, four cells can be placed in series for a nominal voltage of 12.8 V. This comes close to the nominal voltage of six-cell lead-acid batteries. Along with the good safety characteristics of LFP batteries, this makes LFP a good potential replacement for lead-acid batteries in applications such as automotive and solar applications, provided the charging systems are adapted not to damage the LFP cells through excessive charging voltages (beyond 3.6 volts DC per cell while under charge), temperature-based voltage compensation, equalisation attempts or continuous trickle charging. The LFP cells must be at least balanced initially before the pack is assembled and a protection system also needs to be implemented to ensure no cell can be discharged below a voltage of 2.5 V or severe damage will occur in most instances, due to irreversible deintercalation of LiFePO4 into FePO4.[29]

Safety

One important advantage over other lithium-ion chemistries is thermal and chemical stability, which improves battery safety.[24] LiFePO 4 is an intrinsically safer cathode material than LiCoO 2 and manganese dioxide spinels through omission of the cobalt, with its negative temperature coefficient of resistance that can encourage thermal runaway. The P–O bond in the (PO 4)3−  ion is stronger than the Co–O bond in the (CoO 2)−  ion, so that when abused (short-circuited, overheated, etc.), the oxygen atoms are released more slowly. This stabilization of the redox energies also promotes faster ion migration.[30]

As lithium migrates out of the cathode in a LiCoO 2 cell, the CoO 2 undergoes non-linear expansion that affects the structural integrity of the cell. The fully lithiated and unlithiated states of LiFePO 4 are structurally similar which means that LiFePO 4 cells are more structurally stable than LiCoO 2 cells.[بحاجة لمصدر]

No lithium remains in the cathode of a fully charged LFP cell. (In a LiCoO 2 cell, approximately 50% remains.) LiFePO 4 is highly resilient during oxygen loss, which typically results in an exothermic reaction in other lithium cells.[14] As a result, LiFePO 4 cells are harder to ignite in the event of mishandling (especially during charge). The LiFePO 4 battery does not decompose at high temperatures.[24]


. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Lower energy density

The energy density (energy/volume) of a new LFP battery is some 14% lower than that of a new LiCoO 2 battery.[31] Also, many brands of LFPs, as well as cells within a given brand of LFP batteries, have a lower discharge rate than lead-acid or LiCoO 2.[بحاجة لمصدر] Since discharge rate is a percentage of battery capacity, a higher rate can be achieved by using a larger battery (more ampere hours) if low-current batteries must be used. Better yet, a high-current LFP cell (which will have a higher discharge rate than a lead acid or LiCoO 2 battery of the same capacity) can be used.

الاستخدامات

Home energy storage

Enphase pioneered LFP home storage batteries for reasons of cost and fire safety, although the market remains split among competing chemistries.[32] The lower energy density compared to other lithium chemistries adds mass and volume, both may be more tolerable in a static application. In 2021, there were several suppliers to the home end user market, including SonnenBatterie and Enphase. Tesla Motors continues to use NMC batteries in its home energy storage products, but in 2021 switched to LFP for its utility-scale battery product.[33] The most quoted home energy storage battery in the U.S. is the Enphase, which in 2021 surpassed Tesla Motors and LG.[34]

النقل

Higher discharge rates needed for acceleration, lower weight and longer life makes this battery type ideal for forklifts, bicycles and electric cars. 12V LiFePO4 batteries are also gaining popularity as a second (house) battery for a caravan, motor-home or boat.

Tesla Motors currently uses LFP batteries in certain vehicles, including its Chinese-made Standard Range Models 3 and Y, and some Model 3 units in the United States beginning around August 2021.[35] In October 2021, Tesla announced that all standard-range Models 3 and Y will begin using LFP battery chemistry.[36]

In late 2021, Our Next Energy demonstrated a long range test of a Model S retrofitted with an LFP battery traveling for 752 miles on a single charge.[37]

Solar-powered lighting systems

Single "14500" (AA battery–sized) LFP cells are now used in some solar-powered landscape lighting instead of 1.2 V NiCd/NiMH.[بحاجة لمصدر]

LFP's higher (3.2 V) working voltage lets a single cell drive an LED without circuitry to step up the voltage. Its increased tolerance to modest overcharging (compared to other Li cell types) means that LiFePO 4 can be connected to photovoltaic cells without circuitry to halt the recharge cycle. The ability to drive an LED from a single LFP cell also obviates battery holders, and thus the corrosion, condensation and dirt issues associated with products using multiple removable rechargeable batteries.[بحاجة لمصدر]

By 2013, better solar-charged passive infrared security lamps emerged.[38] As AA-sized LFP cells have a capacity of only 600 mAh (while the lamp's bright LED may draw 60 mA), the units shine for at most 10 hours. However, if triggering is only occasional, such units may be satisfactory even charging in low sunlight, as lamp electronics ensure after-dark "idle" currents of under 1 mA.[بحاجة لمصدر]

استخدامات أخرى

Some electronic cigarettes use these types of batteries. Other applications include flashlights, radio-controlled models, portable motor-driven equipment, amateur radio equipment, industrial sensor systems[39] and emergency lighting.[40]

See also

References

  1. ^ أ ب ت "Great Power Group, Square lithium-ion cell". Retrieved 2019-12-31.
  2. ^ "12,8 Volt Lithium-Iron-Phosphate Batteries" (PDF). VictronEnergy.nl. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-09-21. Retrieved 2016-04-20.
  3. ^ "Zooms 12V 100Ah LiFePO4 Deep Cycle Battery, Rechargeable Lithium Iron Phosphate Battery". Amazon.com. Archived from the original on 2022-01-25. Retrieved 2022-01-25.
  4. ^ "ZEUS Battery Products - 12.8 V Lithium Iron Phosphate Battery Rechargeable (Secondary) 20Ah". DigiKey.com. Archived from the original on 2022-01-25. Retrieved 2022-01-25.
  5. ^ أ ب ت Preger, Yuliya; Barkholtz, Heather M.; Fresquez, Armando; Campbell, Daniel L.; Juba, Benjamin W.; Romàn-Kustas, Jessica; Ferreira, Summer R.; Chalamala, Babu (2020). "Degradation of Commercial Lithium-Ion Cells as a Function of Chemistry and Cycling Conditions". Journal of the Electrochemical Society. Institute of Physics. 167 (12): 120532. Bibcode:2020JElS..167l0532P. doi:10.1149/1945-7111/abae37. S2CID 225506214. Retrieved 17 January 2022.
  6. ^ Learn about lithium batteries ethospower.org
  7. ^ Li, Wangda; Lee, Steven; Manthiram, Arumugam (2020). "High-Nickel NMA: A Cobalt-Free Alternative to NMC and NCA Cathodes for Lithium-Ion Batteries". Advanced Materials. 32 (33): e2002718. doi:10.1002/adma.202002718. PMID 32627875.
  8. ^ Masquelier, Christian; Croguennec, Laurence (2013). "Polyanionic (Phosphates, Silicates, Sulfates) Frameworks as Electrode Materials for Rechargeable Li (or Na) Batteries". Chemical Reviews. 113 (8): 6552–6591. doi:10.1021/cr3001862. PMID 23742145.
  9. ^ Manthiram, A.; Goodenough, J. B. (1989). "Lithium insertion into Fe2(SO4)3 frameworks". Journal of Power Sources. 26 (3–4): 403–408. Bibcode:1989JPS....26..403M. doi:10.1016/0378-7753(89)80153-3.
  10. ^ Manthiram, A.; Goodenough, J. B. (1987). "Lithium insertion into Fe2(MO4)3 frameworks: Comparison of M = W with M = Mo". Journal of Solid State Chemistry. 71 (2): 349–360. Bibcode:1987JSSCh..71..349M. doi:10.1016/0022-4596(87)90242-8.
  11. ^ "LiFePO 4: A Novel Cathode Material for Rechargeable Batteries", A.K. Padhi, K.S. Nanjundaswamy, J.B. Goodenough, Electrochemical Society Meeting Abstracts, 96-1, May, 1996, pp 73
  12. ^ "Phospho-olivines as Positive-Electrode Materials for Rechargeable Lithium Batteries" A. K. Padhi, K. S. Nanjundaswamy, and J. B. Goodenough, J. Electrochem. Soc., Volume 144, Issue 4, pp. 1188-1194 (April 1997)
  13. ^ أ ب Gorman, Jessica (September 28, 2002). "Bigger, Cheaper, Safer Batteries: New material charges up lithium-ion battery work". Science News. Vol. 162, no. 13. p. 196. Archived from the original on 2008-04-13.
  14. ^ أ ب "Building safer Li ion batteries". houseofbatteries.com. Archived from the original on 2011-01-31.
  15. ^ Susantyoko, Rahmat Agung; Karam, Zainab; Alkhoori, Sara; Mustafa, Ibrahim; Wu, Chieh-Han; Almheiri, Saif (2017). "A surface-engineered tape-casting fabrication technique toward the commercialisation of freestanding carbon nanotube sheets". Journal of Materials Chemistry A (in الإنجليزية). 5 (36): 19255–19266. doi:10.1039/c7ta04999d. ISSN 2050-7488.
  16. ^ Susantyoko, Rahmat Agung; Alkindi, Tawaddod Saif; Kanagaraj, Amarsingh Bhabu; An, Boohyun; Alshibli, Hamda; Choi, Daniel; AlDahmani, Sultan; Fadaq, Hamed; Almheiri, Saif (2018). "Performance optimization of freestanding MWCNT-LiFePO4 sheets as cathodes for improved specific capacity of lithium-ion batteries". RSC Advances (in الإنجليزية). 8 (30): 16566–16573. Bibcode:2018RSCAd...816566S. doi:10.1039/c8ra01461b. ISSN 2046-2069.
  17. ^ Armand, Michel; Goodenough, John B.; Padhi, Akshaya K.; Nanjundaswam, Kirakodu S.; Masquelier, Christian (Feb 4, 2003), Cathode materials for secondary (rechargeable) lithium batteries, http://www.google.com/patents/US6514640, retrieved on 2016-02-25 
  18. ^ David Linden (ed.), Handbook of Batteries 3rd Edition,McGraw Hill 2002, ISBN 0-07-135978-8, pages 35-16 and 35-17
  19. ^ "Cell — CA Series". CALB.cn. Archived from the original on 2014-10-09.
  20. ^ "LiFePO4 Battery". www.evlithium.com. Retrieved 2020-09-24.
  21. ^ "Large-Format, Lithium Iron Phosphate". JCWinnie.biz. 2008-02-23. Archived from the original on 2008-11-18. Retrieved 2012-04-24.
  22. ^ "Nickel battery infographic" (PDF).
  23. ^ "Transition Minerals Tracker" (PDF). humanrights.org.
  24. ^ أ ب ت Rechargeable Lithium Batteries. Archived from the original on 2011-07-14. {{cite encyclopedia}}: |work= ignored (help)
  25. ^ "'We are afraid': Erin Brockovich pollutant linked to global electric car boom". the Guardian (in الإنجليزية). 2022-02-19. Retrieved 2022-02-19.
  26. ^ "Battery Pack Prices Cited Below $100/kWh for the First Time in 2020, While Market Average Sits at $137/kWh". December 16, 2020.
  27. ^ قالب:Cite techreport
  28. ^ "ANR26650M1". A123Systems. 2006. Archived from the original on 2012-03-01. ...Current test projecting excellent calendar life: 17% impedance growth and 23% capacity loss in 15 [fifteen!] years at 100% SOC, 60 deg. C...
  29. ^ Inoue, Katsuya; Fujieda, Shun; Shinoda, Kozo; Suzuki, Shigeru; Waseda, Yoshio (2010). "Chemical State of Iron of LiFePO4 during Charge-Discharge Cycles Studied by In-Situ X-ray Absorption Spectroscopy". MATERIALS TRANSACTIONS (in الإنجليزية). 51 (12): 2220–2224. doi:10.2320/matertrans.M2010229. ISSN 1345-9678.
  30. ^ "Lithium Ion batteries | Lithium Polymer | Lithium Iron Phosphate". Harding Energy (in الإنجليزية الأمريكية). Archived from the original on 2016-03-29. Retrieved 2016-04-06.
  31. ^ Guo, Yu-Guo; Hu, Jin-Song; Wan, Li-Jun (2008). "Nanostructured Materials for Electrochemical Energy Conversion and Storage Devices". Advanced Materials. 20 (15): 2878–2887. doi:10.1002/adma.200800627.
  32. ^ "Enphase Energy Enters into Energy Storage Business with AC Battery | Enphase Energy". newsroom.enphase.com.
  33. ^ "Tesla's Shift to LFP Batteries: What to Know | EnergySage". August 12, 2021.
  34. ^ "Latest EnergySage marketplace report shows quoted battery prices are rising". Solar Power World. August 16, 2021.
  35. ^ "US: Tesla Offers Model 3 SR+ LFP Battery Option, Quicker Delivery". InsideEVs.
  36. ^ Gitlin, Jonathan M. (October 21, 2021). "Tesla made $1.6 billion in Q3, is switching to LFP batteries globally". Ars Technica.
  37. ^ "Tesla Model S Goes 752 Miles with a Prototype Battery from a Michigan Startup". Car and Driver. January 5, 2022.
  38. ^ instructables.com[dead link]
  39. ^ "IECEx System". iecex.iec.ch (in الإنجليزية). Retrieved 2018-08-26.
  40. ^ "EM ready2apply BASIC 1 – 2 W" (in الإنجليزية). Tridonic. Retrieved 23 October 2018.
تمّ الاسترجاع من "https://www.marefa.org/w/index.php?title=بطارية_فوسفات_الليثيوم_حديد&oldid=2450973"