وليام إيتون (جندي)

لأشخاص آخرين اسمهم وليام إيتون, انظر وليام إيتون (توضيح).

وليام إيتون William Eaton
وليام إيتون، ح. 1807، رسم رمبرانت پيل.
وُلد	23 فبراير 1764 وودستوك، كنتيكت
توفى	1 يونيو 1811 ريمفيلد، مساتشوستس
الولاء	الولايات المتحدة
الخدمة/الفرع	الجيش الأمريكي
الرتبة	الجيش القاري سارجنت 1783 الجيش الأمريكي كاپتن) 1792 جنرال
معارك/حروب	حرب الساحل البربري الأولى معركة درنة

وليام إيتون William Eaton (23 فبراير 1764 – 1 يونيو 1811)، هو ضابط عسكري أمريكي وكان القنصل الأمريكي في تونس (1797–1803). لعب إيتون دوراً دبلوماسياً وعسكرياً بارزاً في الحرب بين الولايات المتحدة وطرابلس (1801–05). قاد إيتون أول انتصار أجنبية للقوات العسكرية الأمريكية في معركة درنة التي نجح خلالها من إسقاط مدينة درنة ومساعدة الباشا حامد القرة مانلي على استعادة عرشه. كما أدلى إيتون أيضاً شهادته أثناء محاكمة أرون بور بتهمة الخيانة. عمل لفترة واحدة في General Court of Massachusetts، الذي كان المجلس التشريعي لولاية مساتشوستس أثناء وبعد colonial era. توفى إيتون في 1 يونيو 1811، في السابعة والأربعين من عمره.

سميت على اسمه مدمرة الحرب العالمية الثانية يو إس إس إيتون (دي دي-510).

السيرة العسكرية

Eaton ran away at the age of sixteen to enlist in the army. He joined the Continental Army in 1780 and served until 1783, attaining the rank of sergeant at the age of 19. He earned money for college working as a school teacher in Windsor, Vermont. In 1790, he graduated from Dartmouth College. He and a classmate presented a poetic dialogue at the commencement. Between 1791 and 1792, he worked as a clerk in the lower house of the Vermont legislature

In 1792, Eaton accepted a captain's commission in the Legion of the United States and began training at Legionville (Baden, Pennsylvania). He also married Eliza, the widow of General Timothy Danielson. In 1795, Eaton faced court-martial for charges resulting in a "misunderstanding" between himself and Lieutenant Colonel Henry Gaither. For the charges, which included those of profiteering and "liberating from confinement" a murder suspect, Eaton was sentenced to two months' suspended commission. Despite the conviction, Eaton held his commission until July 11, 1797, when he was appointed U.S. Consul at Tunis. He served at that post until war with Tripoli broke out in 1801. Other sources say he left the consul post in 1803.

تونس (1799–1803)

كانت مهمة إيتون الرئيسية في تونس هي التفاوض حول السلام واتفاقيات التجارة مع باي تونس. في القرن التاسع عشر، كانت السفن التجارية الأوروبية والأمريكية تحت تهدي قراصنة "الساحل البربري". كان الساحل البربري يضم عدد من الدويلات الإسلامية، تحت الحكم العثماني، والتي كانت تقع في شمال أفريقيا، ويحدها شمالاً [[البحر المتوسط. كانت الأرباح التي حصلوا عليها من هجماتهم على السفن التجارية، تأتي من الشحنات المحملة عليها، ومن طلب الجزية مقابل تسليم طاقمها أو بيعهم كعبيد. اختارت الدول الأوروبية دفع الفدي لمنع الهجوم على سفنها التجارية. بعد الثورة الأمريكية، تُركت الولايات المتحدة بدون حماية بريطانيا في البحر المتوسط، ومن ثم اختارت ادارة جورج واشنطن وجون أدامز دفع الجزية للبربر كبديل عن التحرك العسكري.

في عام 1796، كانت الولايات المتحدة ملزمة بالدفع لداي الجزائر. عام 1798، قام جويل بارلو، قنصل الولايات المتحدة بالجزائر، بالتفاوض مع الداي ووعده بفرقاطة، قيمتها ما يقرب من مليون دولار. ثم أرسل تاجر فرنسي، جوزيف ستفن فامين، للتفاوض مع باي تونس. تم التوصل لاتفاقية، لكن الكونگرس لم يصدق عليها. قام الرئيس الأمريكي جون أدامز بتعيين وليام إيتون قنصل لتونس للتفاوض على شروط أكثر قبولاً. استغرق إنجاز المهمة سنتين. في الوقت الذي الجزائر وطرابلس تطلب المزيد من الأموال، اعتقد إيتن أنه من الأفضل استخدام القوة العسكرية لتأمين التجارة في الاقليم، أكثر من الاستمرار في دفع الجزية. كتب إيتون خطاب حماسي لوزير الخارجية الأمريكي، جيمس ماديسون، يخبره فيه رؤيته، "بأنه كلما أُعطي الأتراك سيطالبون بالمزيد."

جاك كيلي، من پيتسبورگ پوست-گازيت، كتب مقال عام 2009، بعنوان "اقتل القراصنة"، جاء فيه أن توماس جفرسون فضل التدخل العسكري الدولي لدفع الجزية. قال كيلي أن جفرسون كان غير قادر على إقناع أوروبا باتخاذ هذا المسار. وأنه عندما أصبح رئيساً للولايات المتحدة، عام 1801، رفض دفع الجزية لطرابلس. أتلانتك منثلي (1860)، قالت أن الاعتقاد بأن الولايات المتحدة كانت قد رفضت في البداية دفع الجزية إلى القراصنة البربر "كان وهم وطني". المقال، ضرب عرض الحائط بما يسمى "وجهة النظرة الشعبية" للأحداث، قائلاً أن "مسألة الأموال بين الرئيس والباشا كانت ببساطة جزء بسيط من مبالغ كبيرة". قائلاً بأن تحرك جفرسون تجاه طرابلس كان تحت ضغوط قوية من التجار. باشا طرابلس، يوسف القرة مانلي كان رده على عدم دفع الولايات المتحدة للجزية بإعلان الحرب عليها.

كانت تونس الأقرب لطرابلس ولباشا طرابلس المخلوع، حامد القرة مانلي، الذي كان منفي هناك. كان حامد القرة مانلي، في حقيقة الأمر، الشقيق الأكبر للباشا الحاكم، يوسف القرة مانلي. وضع وليام إيتون خطة تدعم فيها الولايات المتحدة استعادة حامد القرة مانلي للعرش وفي الوقت نفسه تزرع الرهبة من الولايات المتحدة في بقية العالم الإسلامي. استدان 22,000 دولار لدعم الخطة، لكنه عند هذه المرحلة لم يحصل على ميزانية من الحكومة الأمريكية. في الوقت الذي كان يطالبه فيه باي تونس بدفع الجزية، رفض إيتون التصريح بمطالب الولايات المتحدة. He requested that he be recalled, لشعوره أنه لا مجال للتفاوض مع الباي. إضافة إلى ذلك، فقد كان الأسطول الأمريكي، تحت قيادة الكومودور ريتشارد موريس، تمكن مؤخراً من الاستيلاء على سفينة تونسية كانت في طريقها إلى طرابلس. وصل موريس للساحل التونسي في زيارة إلى إيتون واعتقل لديون إيتون البالغة 22.000 دولار. استدان إيتون الأموال لدفع الدين من الجنرال-القنصل الفرنسي. هنا، أمره الباي بمغادرة تونس، التي غادرها بصحبة موريس. فشلت محاولات حامد القرة مانلي في استعادة عرشه في طرابلس، وفر إلى مصر.

حرب طرابلس ومعركة درنة

عاد إيتون إلى الساحل البربري عام 1804، لكن هذه المرة كان في مهمة عسكرية. استغرق إعلان طرابلس الحرب على الولايات المتحدة شهور ليصل للرئيس جفرسون، لكنه كان بالفعل قد أرسل قوات بحرية إلى الساحل البربري لأن إيتون كان قد أخبره بأن الوضع في طرابلس كان ينذر "بقرب الحرب."من بين السفن التي أرسلتها الولايات المتحدة، يو إس إس فلادلفيا، والتي كانت في أكتوبر 1803، تحت قيادة الكابتن وليام باينبريدج، قد أرسلت لحصار طرابلس. جنحت الفرقاطة في مواجهة ساحل طرابلس وأسرت مع طاقهما المكون من 306 رجل. فشل باينبريدج في الفرار بالسفينة قبل أسرها، لكن ستفن ديكاتور، كومودو يو إس إس إنترپيد، نجح في المهمة، وقام بحرق فلادلفيا، لمنع الطرابلسيون من استخدامها.

في مايو 1804، كان إيتون was given the commission of a navy lieutenant and sent back to the Barbary regencies, under the supervision of Commodore James Barron, to find Hamet Caramelli and enlist his cooperation in the war. Eaton found Caramelli in Alexandria and signed an agreement with him, although it is unclear if he had the authority to do so. This contract, which was forwarded to Secretary of State Madison, specified that the United States would provide cash, ammunition and provisions for Hamet Caramelli's re-installation as pasha. It also designated William Eaton as "General and Commander in Chief" of the land forces that were to be used to carry out the operation. The agreement defined the relationship between Caramelli and Eaton as well as their mission, but was never ratified by the United States Senate.

The Americans included eight marines and two navy midshipmen. It was with that force that Eaton and Caramelli made the 600 mile trek from Alexandria to Derne, a coastal city within the realm of Tripoli. By the time the band had reached the Gulf of Bomba, they had eaten their last rations and the Arab factions were on the verge of mutiny. Eaton had written to Captain Isaac Hull of the USS Argus requesting that the ship meet them there with supplies, but when they arrived on April 15, there was no ship to be seen. The next day, however, the Argus appeared as Hull had seen the smoke from their fires. After resupplying, they continued their journey, and on April 27, 1805, Eaton's forces attacked and took control of Derne. "Captain Presley O'Bannon of the U.S. Marine Corps raised the American flag for the first time over a conquered foreign city." At the Battle of Derne, one marine was killed and two were wounded. Eaton was wounded in the left wrist.

حاولت قوات يوسف القرة مانلي استعادة مرتين وفشلت. وخُلع باي درنه وأصبح حامد القرة مانلي حاكماً عليها، عندها فكر إيتون في التحرك نحو طرابلس. طلب إيتون تعزيزات من بارو لكن وصله بدلاً منها رسالة تقول بأن الجنرال-القنصل الأمريكي توبياس لير كان يجري مفاوضات سلام مع يوسف القرة مانلي. ثم وصلته رسالة من لير نفسه يخبره فيها بأن يسلم درنة حسب اتفاقية السلام التي عُقدت في 4 يونيو. كانت شروط المعاهدة تتطلب من الولايات المتحدة دفع 60.000 دولار للإفراج عن طاقم السفينة فلادلفيا. وسُمح لحامد القرمنلية وحاشيته التي تضم 30 شخص، بالمغادرة، لكنه زوجته وعائلتها سيظلوا أسرى حتى عام 1807، كما جاء في المعاهدة.

الأعقاب

Although Eaton returned to the United States to a hero's welcome, he was disappointed and embittered by the treaty and outraged that ransom had to be paid for the freeing of the hostages. He had been denied victory in Tripoli and his agreement with Hamet Karamanli was left unkept. Furthermore, the government owed him money that he had fronted for the expedition. He complained loudly that the government was guilty of duplicity in regard to Hamet Karamanli. His complaints drew the attention of Jefferson's enemies in the Federalist party.

In January 1806, Congress was presented with a petition from Hamet Karamanli for money and the release of his family from his brother's custody. The issue became partisan with the Federalists supporting Karamanli's and Eaton's claims that the government had rescinded its agreement to re-establish Karamanli as Tripolitan pasha. Jefferson, and his supporters, on the other hand, denied that administration ever intended the arrangement, contending that Eaton had lacked the authority to broker the deal. Nevertheless, despite the Federalist opposition, the treaty with Tripoli was ratified by the Senate in April 1806, and the United States entered into an agreement with a Barbary state that, for the first time, did not include the payment of tribute.

Initially, Eaton's victory in Derne was viewed by both parties as the motivating factor for Tripoli in the settlement of the war. However, his willingness to become involved in the partisan bickering cost Eaton official recognition for his accomplishment. It had been proposed that Congress present Eaton with a sword, but Federalists argued that he be given a gold medal. The debate was never resolved thus he did not receive "a sword, a medal, a tract of public land or simply a resolution of thanks". He did however, receive 10،000 acre (40 km²) from Massachusetts in present-day Maine.

محاكمة آرون بر

Eaton was a principal witness in the 1807 treason trial of former United States Vice-President Aaron Burr. Burr was vice president during President Thomas Jefferson's first term (1801–1805). Avoiding murder charges resulting from the death of his political rival Alexander Hamilton in a duel (1804), Burr traveled throughout the west. During this time, he met with many military men who were disgruntled with the government, including Eaton and General James Wilkinson. According to Eaton's later testimony, he and Burr met several times, and Eaton came to believe that Burr was planning to raise an army to invade Spanish territory in the southwest and to establish an independent state, with himself as sovereign. Eaton then met with Jefferson to suggest that Burr be given an overseas post, warning that if he was not sent out of the country he would stage an insurrection within eighteen months. The President responded that he felt secure enough in the unity of the American people not to feel threatened by such an insurrection. Eaton again warned of Burr's plans, in the fall of 1806, when he forwarded to the State Department a letter that he had received from his stepson, Timothy Danielson Jr., sent to him by a friend in Ohio, Morris Belknap. The letter said that Burr had been purchasing boats in Ohio, and offering young men army posts. Finally, Wilkinson sent Jefferson a letter including what he claimed was a decryption of ciphered treasonous correspondence received from Burr.

In 1807, Burr was arrested for treason. Although Jefferson privately confided to Senator William Plumber of New Hampshire that he did not think there was enough evidence to convict Burr of treason, his public condemnation of Burr, along with Wilkinson's letter and the deposition of William Eaton, insured an indictment. On January 26, 1807, Eaton gave a deposition regarding his conversations with Burr. The affidavit stated that, as he listened to Burr's ambitions, Eaton came to believe that Burr was planning the overthrow of the United States government. He further stated that Burr offered him the rank of General in his army. Eaton continued to say,

"He [Burr] said, if he could gain over the marine corps, and secure the naval commanders, Truxton, Preble, Decatur, and others, he would turn Congress neck and heels out of doors; assassinate the President; seize on the treasury and navy; and declare himself the protector of an energetic government."

Burr's treason trial in Richmond, Virginia, began in August, 1807 with Eaton as the first prosecution witness. Eaton reiterated what he had said in his deposition. To discredit Eaton, the defense questioned Eaton about $10,000 he had received from the federal government since giving his deposition, implying that the administration had paid him for his testimony. Eaton countered that the $10,000 was, in fact, reimbursement for money he spent in the Barbary War (which one source contends was less than what he was owed). Historians are divided on the status of Eaton's testimony. While one states that it was wildly exaggerated, another counters that "Burr apologists" are responsible for that point of view. Whatever the case, presiding judge John Marshall and the jury were unconvinced, and Burr was acquitted.

Eaton was subpoenaed again for another trial, in Ohio. This time the defense sought to discredit Eaton's testimony by bringing up the court-martial brought against him while he was a captain. By this time the records of the court-martial had been destroyed in a fire. It scarcely mattered anyway, as the trial itself never took place.

أيامه الأخيرة

After peace with Tripoli was made, William Eaton returned to Brimfield, Massachusetts, the place he had called home for most of his life. He was elected to the state legislature, but only served one term. Burr's trial had proved to be a partisan issue, dividing the Federalists and the Jeffersonian Republicans. After the trial Eaton was verbal about the treatment that he had received from the Federalists, notably John Marshall, chief justice of the U.S. Supreme Court. Having lost the Federalist vote in Brimfield because of his outspokenness, Eaton failed at his bid for re-election.

Eaton suffered from rheumatism and gout, and by all accounts he had taken to drinking heavily. He was also in debt from gambling. He died on June 1, 1811, in Brimfield. Eaton was predeceased by his wife Eliza (née Sikes) Danielson; daughters Eliza (married Goodwin), Charlotte (married Sprague) and Almira (married Hayden); sons William Sikes and Nathaniel Johnson; stepson Timothy Danielson; and a stepdaughter. Skies and Johnson were West Point graduates.

ذكراه

المدمرة البحرية يو إس إس إيتون، سميت على اسم الجنرال وليام إيتون.

William Eaton is the namesake of three U.S. towns: Eatonton, Georgia, Eaton, New York, and Eaton, Ohio. He was also the namesake of the Fletcher-class destroyer USS Eaton.

The Tripoli Monument, in memory of the first American military casualties overseas in the battle at Derne, was sculpted of Italian marble by artist Giovanni Micali in 1806, and transported to the United States by the frigate USS Constitution ("Old Ironsides") and placed at the new national capital of Washington, D.C. at the Washington Navy Yard on the East Branch (now the Anacostia River) of the Potomac River in 1808. Considered the first war monument in the United States, it was damaged during the burning of Washington by British forces in August 1814 as part of the War of 1812. Later in 1831, it was relocated to the west front of the United States Capitol, overlooking the National Mall. In 1860, it was relocated to the campus of the U.S. Naval Academy at Annapolis, Maryland, where although moved several more times over the decades, remains there today. In 2001, it underwent repairs and a physical restoration.

في الثقافة الشعبية

Consul General Eaton and his actions at Derne with other U.S. Navy personnel along with Greek mercenaries, were loosely portrayed in the 1950 historical feature film Tripoli, starring John Payne, Maureen O'Hara, and Howard da Silva.

مرئيات

خورشيد باشا والي مصر، والأسرة القرمانلية التي حكمت طرابلس، وأدوارهم في الخطوات الإمبريالية الأمريكية الأولى. الصورة الكبيرة، 2024

المصادر

This article incorporates text from the public domain Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships.

المراجع

• Adams, Henry. The History of the United States During the First Administration of Jefferson, Part II. Library of America. 2005 ISBN 1-4179-7065-0
• The Life of the Late General William Eaton: Principally Collected from his Correspondence and Other Manuscripts. Edited by Charles Prentiss. Printed by E. Merriam and Company, Brookfield, 1813

قراءات إضافية

• London, Joshua E. Victory in Tripoli: How America's War with the Barbary Pirates Established the U.S. Navy and Shaped a Nation. New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2005. ISBN 0-471-44415-4
• Roberts, Kenneth. Lydia Bailey. New York: Doubleday, 1947. ISBN 978-0-89272-514-4. Eaton appears as a major character in this historical novel.
• Smethurst, David. Tripoli: The United States' First War on Terror. New York: Presidio Press, 2006. ISBN 978-0-89141-859-7
• Wheelan, Joseph. Jefferson's War: America's First War on Terror, 1801–1805. New York: Carroll & Graf, 2003. ISBN 0-7867-1232-5.
• Zacks, Richard. The Pirate Coast: Thomas Jefferson, the First Marines, and the Secret Mission of 1805. New York: Hyperion, 2005. ISBN 1-4013-0003-0.

وصلات خارجية

• William Eaton at Find A Grave
• The Aaron Burr Trial