رباعي نترات خماسي الإريثريتول
| الأسماء | |
|---|---|
| اسم أيوپاك المفضل
2,2-Bis[(nitrooxy)methyl]propane-1,3-diyl dinitrate | |
| أسماء أخرى
[3-Nitrooxy-2,2-bis(nitrooxymethyl)propyl] nitrate
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| المُعرِّفات | |
| رقم CAS | |
3D model (JSmol)
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| ChEMBL | |
| ChemSpider | |
| ECHA InfoCard | 100.000.987 |
PubChem CID
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| UNII | |
CompTox Dashboard (EPA)
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| الخصائص | |
| الصيغة الجزيئية | C5H8N4O12 |
| كتلة مولية | 316.07 g mol-1 |
| المظهر | White crystalline solid[1] |
| الكثافة | 1.77 g/cm3 at 20 °C |
| نقطة الانصهار | |
| نقطة الغليان | |
| بيانات متفجر | |
| حساسية الصدم | Medium |
| حساسية الاحتكاك | Medium |
| RE factor | 1.66 |
| المخاطر | |
| ن.م.ع. مخطط تصويري | |
| ن.م.ع. كلمة الاشارة | Danger |
| H201, H241, H302, H316, H370, H373 | |
| P210, P250, P261, P264, P301+P312, P370+P380, P372, P401, P501 | |
| NFPA 704 (معيـَّن النار) | |
| 190 °C (374 °F; 463 K) | |
| علم الأدوية | |
| C01DA05 (WHO) | |
ما لم يُذكر غير ذلك، البيانات المعطاة للمواد في حالاتهم العيارية (عند 25 °س [77 °ف]، 100 kPa). | |
| مراجع الجدول | |
رباعي نترات خماسي الإريثريتول أو تترانتريت الپنتا إريثريتول إنگليزية: Pentaerythritol tetranitrate[2]. أو پينتريت Pentaerythritol tetranitrate، [3]، هو واحد من أقوى المواد شديدة الإنفجار المعروفة، بعامل الفعالية النسبي (R.E. factor) 1.66.[4] When mixed with a plasticizer, PTNGR forms a plastic explosive.[5] Along with RDX it is the main ingredient of Semtex.
كما يُستخدم PETN كعقار موسِّع للأوعية لمعالجة بعض أحوال القلب، مثل إدارة الـ angina.[6][7]
الاستخدامات
غالبا ما يستخدم پينتريت كمادة متفجرة. فهي أكثر حساسية للصدم أو الاحتكاك من تي إن تي أو تتريل Tetryl. إلا أنها أصعب في التفجير من المتفجرات الرئيسية، إذ أن إسقاطها أو إشعال النار فيها، في المعتاد، لن يجعلها تنفجر، بالرغم من أنها بالمقارنة بالمتفجرات العالية الأخرى فإنها نسبياً أكثر حساسية.[8] لذلك فإنه يندر استخدامها لمفردها. فهي أساساً تستعمل كرافع أو شحنة تفجير لذخيرة صغيرة العيار في الشحنات العليا للمفجرات في بعض الألغام الأرضية والمقذوفات وكقلب متفجر لفتيل التفجير.[9] پنتريت PETN هي الأقل استقراراً بين المتفجرات العسكرية الشائعة، إلا أنه يمكن تخزينها بدون تدهور ملحوظ لفترات أطول من نيتروگليسرين أو نيتروسليولوز.[10]
الانتاج
Production is by the reaction of pentaerythritol with concentrated nitric acid to form a precipitate which can be recrystallized from acetone to give processable crystals.[11]
Variations of a method first published in US Patent 2,370,437 by Acken and Vyverberg (1945 to Du Pont) form the basis of all current commercial production.[12]
PETN is manufactured by numerous manufacturers as a powder, or together with nitrocellulose and plasticizer as thin plasticized sheets (e.g. Primasheet 1000, Detasheet and Durasheet 1). PETN residues are easily detectable in hair of people handling it.[13] The highest residue retention is on black hair; some residues remain even after washing.[14][15]
التاريخ
تم تصنيع الپنتريت لأول مرة في 1891 من قبل الكيميائي الألماني برنهارد تولنز وپ. ڤيگاند بنترتة پنتا إريثريتول.[16] وفي 1912، بعد تسجيل براءة اختراعه لصالح الحكومة الألمانية، بدأ انتاج PETN. وقد استخدم الجيش الألماني PETN في الحرب العالمية الأولي.[17][18] كما استُخدِمت في المدافع الذاتية MG FF/M والعديد من أنظمة الأسلحة الأخرى لدى لوفتڤافه في الحرب العالمية الثانية.[citation needed]
الاستخدام كمتفجر
The most common use of PETN is as an explosive with high brisance. It is a secondary explosive, meaning it is more difficult to detonate than primary explosives, so dropping or igniting it will typically not cause an explosion (at standard atmospheric pressure it is difficult to ignite and burns vigorously), but is more sensitive to shock and friction than other secondary explosives such as TNT or tetryl.[11][8] Under certain conditions a deflagration to detonation transition can occur, just like that of ammonium nitrate.
It is rarely used alone in military operations due to its limited stability, but is primarily used in the main charges of plastic explosives (such as C4) along with other explosives (especially RDX), booster and bursting charges of small caliber ammunition, in upper charges of detonators in some land mines and shells, as the explosive core of detonation cord.[9][19] PETN is the least stable of the common military explosives, but can be stored without significant deterioration for longer than nitroglycerin or nitrocellulose.[20]
During World War II, PETN was most importantly used in exploding-bridgewire detonators for the atomic bombs. These exploding-bridgewire detonators gave more precise detonation compared to primacord. PETN was used for these detonators because it was safer than primary explosives like lead azide: while it was sensitive, it would not detonate below a threshold amount of energy.[21] Exploding bridgewires containing PETN remain in use in current nuclear weapons. In spark detonators, PETN is used to avoid the need for primary explosives; the energy needed for a successful direct initiation of PETN by an electric spark ranges between 10–60 mJ.
Its basic explosion characteristics are:
- Explosion energy: 5،810 kJ/kg ([convert: unit mismatch]), so 1 g of PETN has the energy of 1.24 g of TNT. PETN is approximately 7% denser than TNT, so by the same token, 1 cm3 of PETN has the energy of about 1.33 cm3 of TNT.
- Detonation velocity: 8350 m/s (1.73 g/cm3), 7910 m/s (1.62 g/cm3), 7420 m/s (1.5 g/cm3), 8500 m/s (pressed in a steel tube)
- Volume of gases produced: 790 dm3/kg (other value: 768 dm3/kg)
- Explosion temperature: 4230 °C
- Oxygen balance: −6.31 atom -g/kg
- Melting point: 141.3 °C (pure), 140–141 °C (technical)
- Trauzl lead block test: 523 cm3 (other values: 500 cm3 when sealed with sand, or 560 cm3 when sealed with water)
- Critical diameter (minimal diameter of a rod that can sustain detonation propagation): 0.9 mm for PETN at 1 g/cm3, smaller for higher densities (other value: 1.5 mm)
In mixtures
PETN is used in a number of compositions. It is a major ingredient of the Semtex plastic explosive. It is also used as a component of pentolite, a castable mixture with TNT (usually 50/50 but may contain more TNT), which is, along with pure PETN, a common explosive for boosters for the blasting work (as in mining).[22][23] The XTX8003 extrudable explosive, used in the W68 and W76 nuclear warheads, is a mixture of 80% PETN and 20% of Sylgard 182, a silicone rubber.[24] It is often phlegmatized by addition of 5–40% of wax, or by polymers (producing polymer-bonded explosives); in this form it is used in some cannon shells up to 30 mm caliber, though it is unsuitable for higher calibers. It is also used as a component of some gun propellants and solid rocket propellants. Nonphlegmatized PETN is stored and handled with approximately 10% water content. PETN alone cannot be cast as it explosively decomposes slightly above its melting point,[citation needed][مطلوب توضيح] but it can be mixed with other explosives to form castable mixtures.
PETN can be initiated by a laser.[25] A pulse with duration of 25 nanoseconds and 0.5–4.2 joules of energy from a Q-switched ruby laser can initiate detonation of a PETN surface coated with a 100 nm thick aluminium layer in less than half of a microsecond.[citation needed]
PETN has been replaced in many applications by RDX, which is thermally more stable and has a longer shelf life.[26] PETN can be used in some ram accelerator types.[27] Replacement of the central carbon atom with silicon produces Si-PETN, which is extremely sensitive.[28][29]
Terrorist and military use
Ten kilograms of PETN was used in the 1980 Paris synagogue bombing.
In April 1983, 63 people were killed by a suicide truck bomb at US embassy in Beirut, filled with PETN to rival 2,000 pounds of TNT. Later the same October, 307 people were killed after a suicide truck bomb filled with PETN was detonated at the American/French Beirut barracks.
في 1983 دُمـِّر مبنى "Maison de France" في برلين تدميراً شبه كامل مع انهيار بتفجير 24 كيلوجرام من PETN من قِبل الارهابي يوهانس ڤاينريش.[30] وفي ديسمبر 2001، استخدم عضو تنظيم القاعدة ريتشارد ريد PETN في محاولته غير الناجحة لتفجير الرحلة 63 على أمريكان أيرلاينز من باريس إلى ميامي.[31] وكان ينوي استخدام ثلاثي أسيتون ثلاثي پوكسيد (TATP) صلب كمفجر.[8] وفي 28 أغسطس 2009، اُستخدم PETN في محاولة اغتيال نائب وزير الداخلية السعودي الأمير محمد بن نايف بن عبد العزيز من قِبل المفجر الانتحاري السعودي المرتبط بتنظيم القاعدة عبد الله حسن العسيري. نجا المسئول المستهدف ومات الانتحاري في التفجير. وكان PETN مخفياً في مستقيم الانتحاري، حسب ما أوردته السلطات السعودية[32] أو أنه حاك المتفجرات في ملابسه الداخلية.[33]
وفي 29 أكتوبر 2010 عـُثر على عبوتي حبر طابعة مملوئتين بال PETN على الطائرات المتجهة إلى الولايات المتحدة. وتعتقد وكالات المخابرات السعودية والأمريكية أن العبوات مرتبطة بتنظيم قاعدة الجهاد في جزيرة العرب، في اليمن. والعبوتان المشكوك فيهما —وصفهما الرئيس باراك اوباما بأنهما "خطر ارهابي حقيقي"—كانتا معنونتين إلى كنس يهودية في منطقة شيكاغو. عـُثر على العبوتين في طائرات شحن UPS و فدإكس، مما أثار تحذيرات في الولايات المتحدة والمملكة المتحدة والشرق الأوسط. وقد تم تفتيش طائرات أخرى في مطارات أمريكية للاعتقاد في احتوائهم على أغراض من اليمن.[34]
On 12 July 2017, 150 grams of PETN was found in the Assembly of Uttar Pradesh,[35][36] India's most populous state.[37][38]
PETN was used by Israel in the manufacturing of pagers provided to Hezbollah. On September 17, 2024, the pagers detonated, killing 12 people and injuring thousands.[39]
Detection
In the wake of terrorist PETN bomb plots, an article in Scientific American noted PETN is difficult to detect because it does not readily vaporize into the surrounding air.[40] The Los Angeles Times noted in November 2010 that PETN's low vapor pressure makes it difficult for bomb-sniffing dogs to detect.[15]
Many technologies can be used to detect PETN, including chemical sensors, X-rays, infrared, microwaves[41] and terahertz,[42] some of which have been implemented in public screening applications, primarily for air travel. PETN is one of the explosive chemicals typically of interest in that area, and it belongs to a family of common nitrate-based explosive chemicals which can often be detected by the same tests.
One detection system in use at airports involves analysis of swab samples obtained from passengers and their baggage. Whole-body imaging scanners that use radio-frequency electromagnetic waves, low-intensity X-rays, or T-rays of terahertz frequency that can detect objects hidden under clothing are not widely used because of cost, concerns about the resulting traveler delays, and privacy concerns.[43]
Both parcels in the 2010 cargo plane bomb plot were x-rayed without the bombs being spotted.[44] Qatar Airways said the PETN bomb "could not be detected by x-ray screening or trained sniffer dogs".[45] The Bundeskriminalamt received copies of the Dubai x-rays, and an investigator said German staff would not have identified the bomb either.[44][46] New airport security procedures followed in the U.S., largely to protect against PETN.[15]
Medical use
Like nitroglycerin (glyceryl trinitrate) and other nitrates, PETN is also used medically as a vasodilator in the treatment of heart conditions.[6][7] These drugs work by releasing the signaling gas nitric oxide in the body. The heart medicine Lentonitrat is nearly pure PETN.[47]
Monitoring of oral usage of the drug by patients has been performed by determination of plasma levels of several of its hydrolysis products, pentaerythritol dinitrate, pentaerythritol mononitrate and pentaerythritol, in plasma using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry.[48]
انظر أيضا
المصادر
- ^ "Provisional Peer-Reviewed Toxicity Values for Pentaerythritol Tetranitrate (PETN) (CASRN 78-11-5)" (PDF). United States Environmental Protection Agency. يوليو 2021. Archived (PDF) from the original on أغسطس 1, 2024.
- ^ "رسالة مؤرخة 17 كانون الأول /ديسمبر 2007 موجهة من الأمين العام إلى رئيس مجلس الأمن". مجلس الأمن. 2007.
- ^ "Pentrite, CAS Number: 78-11-5". ChemIndustry.com. Retrieved أبريل 22, 2009.
{{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=(help) - ^ "PETN (Pentaerythritol tetranitrate)". Retrieved مارس 29, 2010.
- ^ Childs, John (1994). "Explosives" (Google Books extract). A dictionary of military history and the art of war. ISBN 978-0-631-16848-5.
- ^ أ ب "New Drugs". Can Med Assoc J. 80 (12): 997–998. 1959. PMC 1831125. PMID 20325960.
- ^ أ ب Ebadi, Manuchair S. (1998). CRC desk reference of clinical pharmacology (Google Books excerpt). CRC Press. p. 383. ISBN 978-0-8493-9683-0.
- ^ أ ب ت Kenneth Chang (2009-12-27), "Explosive on Flight 253 Is Among Most Powerful", The New York Times, http://www.nytimes.com/2009/12/28/us/28explosives.html?ref=us خطأ استشهاد: وسم
<ref>غير صالح؛ الاسم "nyt" معرف أكثر من مرة بمحتويات مختلفة. - ^ أ ب "Primacord Technical Information" (PDF). Dyno Nobel. Retrieved أبريل 22, 2009.
{{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=(help) خطأ استشهاد: وسم<ref>غير صالح؛ الاسم "urlwww.dynonobel.com" معرف أكثر من مرة بمحتويات مختلفة. - ^ http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/454067/PETN
- ^ أ ب Boileau, Jacques; Fauquignon, Claude; Hueber, Bernard & Meyer, Hans H. "Explosives". Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH. doi:10.1002/14356007.a10_143.pub2.
{{cite encyclopedia}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|authors=(help) - ^ {{{1}}} patent {{{2}}}
- ^ Winslow, Ron. (December 29, 2009) A Primer in PETN – WSJ.com. The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 2010-02-08.
- ^ Oxley, Jimmie C.; Smith, James L.; Kirschenbaum, Louis J.; Shinde, Kajal. P.; Marimganti, Suvarna (2005). "Accumulation of Explosives in Hair". Journal of Forensic Sciences. 50 (4): 826–31. doi:10.1520/JFS2004545. PMID 16078483.
- ^ أ ب ت Bennett, Brian (نوفمبر 24, 2010). "PETN: The explosive that airport security is targeting". Los Angeles Times. Tribune Washington Bureau. Retrieved يوليو 19, 2015.
- ^ B. Tollens and P. Wigand (1891) "Über den Penta-erythrit, einen aus Formaldehyd und Acetaldehyd synthetisch hergestellten vierwerthigen Alkohol" (On pentaerythritol, a tetra-valent alcohol synthetically produced from formaldehyde and acetaldehyde), Justus Liebigs Annalen der Chemie, vol. 265, no. 3, pages 316-340.
- ^ German Patent 265,025 (1912)
- ^ Stettbacher, Alfred (1933). Die Schiess- und Sprengstoffe (2. völlig umgearb. Aufl. ed.). Leipzig: Barth. p. 459.
- ^ Zhang, Y.; Li, Q.; He, Y. (2020). "Explosive power of Pentaerythritol Tetranitrate". ACS Omega. 5 (45): 28984–28991. doi:10.1021/acsomega.0c03133. PMC 7675531. PMID 33225129.
- ^ PETN (chemical compound). Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved February 8, 2010.
- ^ Lillian Hoddeson; Paul W. Henriksen; Roger A. Meade; Catherine L. Westfall; Gordon Baym; Richard Hewlett; Alison Kerr; Robert Penneman; Leslie Redman; Robert Seidel (2004). A Technical History of Los Alamos During the Oppenheimer Years, 1943–1945 (Google Books excerpt). Cambridge University Press. pp. 164–173. ISBN 978-0-521-54117-6.
- ^ Kennedy, Bruce A. (1990). Surface Mining, Second Edition (in الإنجليزية). SME. p. 547. ISBN 978-0-87335-102-7.
- ^ Rustan, Agne (1998). Rock Blasting Terms and Symbols: A Dictionary of Symbols and Terms in Rock Blasting and Related Areas like Drilling, Mining and Rock Mechanics (in الإنجليزية). CRC Press. p. 33. ISBN 978-90-5410-441-4.
- ^ Shepodd, T; Behrens, R; Anex, D; Miller, D; Anderson, K (يوليو 1, 1997). Degradation chemistry of PETN and its homologues (Technical report). Sandia National Laboratory. OSTI 650196. SAND-97-8684C. Retrieved مايو 14, 2023.
- ^ Tarzhanov, V. I.; Zinchenko, A. D.; Sdobnov, V. I.; Tokarev, B. B.; Pogrebov, A. I.; Volkova, A. A. (1996). "Laser initiation of PETN". Combustion, Explosion, and Shock Waves. 32 (4): 454. Bibcode:1996CESW...32..454T. doi:10.1007/BF01998499. S2CID 98083192.
- ^ US Army – Encyclopedia of Explosives and Related Items, vol.8
- ^ Simulation of ram accelerator with PETN layer, Arkadiusz Kobiera and Piotr Wolanski, XXI ICTAM, August 15–21, 2004, Warsaw, Poland
- ^ Wei-Guang Liu; et al. (2009). "Explanation of the Colossal Detonation Sensitivity of Silicon Pentaerythritol Tetranitrate (Si-PETN) Explosive" (PDF). J. Am. Chem. Soc. 131 (22): 7490–1. Bibcode:2009JAChS.131.7490L. doi:10.1021/ja809725p. PMID 19489634. Archived from the original (PDF) on مارس 21, 2018. Retrieved يناير 3, 2010.
- ^ Computational Organic Chemistry » Si-PETN sensitivity explained. Comporgchem.com (July 20, 2009). Retrieved 2010-02-08.
- ^ Article detailing attack on Maison de France in Berlin (German)
- ^ "'Shoe bomb suspect 'did not act alone'". BBC News. يناير 25, 2002. Retrieved أبريل 22, 2009.
- ^ Saudi suicide bomber hid IED in his anal cavity, 2009-09-09, http://homelandsecuritynewswire.com/saudi-suicide-bomber-hid-ied-his-anal-cavity
- ^ Peter Bergen (2009-12-27), Analysis: Similar explosive on plane used in Saudi attack, http://www.cnn.com/2009/US/12/27/bergen.terror.plot/index.html
- ^ Cargo Planes carry explosives to US BBC, 30 Oct 10.
- ^ "What is PETN explosive device found in Uttar Pradesh Assembly?". يوليو 15, 2017.
- ^ "Highly explosive PETN found in Uttar Pradesh Assembly: Yogi Adityanath demands NIA probe". Firstpost. يوليو 14, 2017.
- ^ "Population and decadal change by residence : 2011 (PERSONS)" (PDF). Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India. p. 2. Archived (PDF) from the original on أكتوبر 9, 2022.
- ^ "Statistical Year Book 2015" (PDF). telangana.gov.in. Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Government of Telangana. Archived (PDF) from the original on أكتوبر 9, 2022. Retrieved مارس 4, 2019.
- ^ Gebeily, Maya; Pearson, James; Gauthier-Villars, David (أكتوبر 16, 2024). "How Israel's bulky pager fooled Hezbollah". Reuters. Retrieved أكتوبر 16, 2024.
- ^ خطأ استشهاد: وسم
<ref>غير صحيح؛ لا نص تم توفيره للمراجع المسماةscientificamerican1 - ^ Committee on the Review of Existing and Potential Standoff Explosives Detection Techniques, National Research Council (2004) Existing and Potential Standoff Explosives Detection Techniques, National Academies Press, Washington, D.C. p. 77.
- ^ Bou-Sleiman, J.; Perraud, J.-B.; Bousquet, B.; Guillet, J.-P.; Palka, N.; Mounaix, P. (2015). "Discrimination and identification of RDX/PETN explosives by chemometrics applied to terahertz time-domain spectral imaging". In Salmon, Neil A; Jacobs, Eddie L (eds.). Millimetre Wave and Terahertz Sensors and Technology VIII. Vol. 9651. p. 965109. doi:10.1117/12.2197442. S2CID 137950290.
- ^ "Equipment to detect explosives is available". The Washington Post. Retrieved February 8, 2010.
- ^ أ ب "Foiled Parcel Plot: World Scrambles to Tighten Air Cargo Security". Der Spiegel. Retrieved نوفمبر 2, 2010.
- ^ "Q&A: Air freight bomb plot". BBC News. أكتوبر 30, 2010. Retrieved نوفمبر 3, 2010.
- ^ "Passenger jets carried Dubai bomb". Al Jazeera. أكتوبر 31, 2010.
- ^ Russek H. I. (1966). "The therapeutic role of coronary vasodilators: glyceryl trinitrate, isosorbide dinitrate, and pentaerythritol tetranitrate". American Journal of the Medical Sciences. 252 (1): 9–20. doi:10.1097/00000441-196607000-00002. PMID 4957459. S2CID 30975527.
- ^ Baselt, R. (2008) Disposition of Toxic Drugs and Chemicals in Man, 8th edition, Biomedical Publications, Foster City, CA. pp. 1201–1203. ISBN 0962652369.
قراءات إضافية
- Cooper, Paul (1997). Explosives Engineering. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH. ISBN 0-471-18636-8.
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