بينيين
بينيين أو النطق الصحيح: پن‌ين أو هانيو پن‌ين، هو نظام الرومنة الرسمي لكتابة الصينية بالحروف اللاتينية في البر الرئيسي للصين وإلى حد ما في تايوان. وكثيراً ما تُستخدم لتعليم الصينية (المندرينية) الفصحى، التي تُكتب عادةً باستخدام الحروف الصينية. يضم النظام أربع علامات تشكيل تـُميّز النغمات. ويُستخدم پن‌ين بدون علامات النغم لتهجي الأسماء الصينية والكلمات من لغات مكتوبة بـالأبجدية اللاتينية، وكذلك في بعض طرق الإدخال للحاسوب لإدخال الحروف الصينية.
تأسس نظام پن‌ين في 1958 من قِبل عدد من اللغويين، منهم ژو يوگوانگ،[1] مبنية على صيغة أقدم من رَومنات الصينية. وقد نشرتها الحكومة الصينية في 1958 وعدّلتها عدة مرات.[2] المنظمة الدولية للمعايير (ISO) اعتمدت پن‌ين كـمعيار دولي في 1982,[3] وتلتها الأمم المتحدة في 1986.[1] وقد اِعتُمِد النظام كمعيار رسمي في تايوان في 2009، حيث تُستخدم للرومنة فقط[مطلوب توضيح] (جزئياً لجعل مناطق صديقة للإنگليزية بشكل أكبر) وليس لأغراض تعليمية أو للإدخال للحاسوب.[4][5] وبالرغم من محاولة الحكومة الوطنية لتنفيذه، فإن "بعض المدن والشركات والمؤسسات، خصوصاً في جنوب تايوان، لم تقبل ذلك" ولذلك يبقي الپن‌ين واحداً من عدة نظم متنافسة ومستخدمة للرومنة هناك.[6]
كلمة Hànyǔ (الصينية المبسطة: 汉语؛ الصينية التقليدية: 漢語�) تعني "اللغة المحكية لشعب الهان." Pīnyīn (拼音�) وتعني حرفياً "الأصوات المتهجاة".[7]
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تاريخ
خلفية: رومنة الصينية قبل 1949
In 1605, the Jesuit missionary Matteo Ricci published Xizi Qiji (西字奇蹟؛ Xīzì Qíjī؛ Hsi-tzu Ch'i-chi؛ 'Miracle of Western Letters'�) in Beijing.[8] This was the first book to use the Roman alphabet to write the Chinese language. Twenty years later, another Jesuit in China, Nicolas Trigault, issued his Xī Rú Ěrmù Zī (《西儒耳目資》؛ Hsi Ju Erh-mu Tzu؛ 'Aid to the Eyes and Ears of Western Literati'�) at Hangzhou.[9] Neither book had much immediate impact on the way in which Chinese thought about their writing system, and the romanizations they described were intended more for Westerners than for the Chinese.[10]
One of the earliest Chinese thinkers to relate Western alphabets to Chinese was late Ming to early Qing dynasty scholar-official, Fang Yizhi (方以智؛ Fāng Yǐzhì؛ Fang I-chih�; 1611–1671).[11]
The first late Qing reformer to propose that China adopt a system of spelling was Song Shu (1862–1910). A student of the great scholars Yu Yue and Zhang Taiyan, Song had been to Japan and observed the stunning effect of the kana syllabaries and Western learning there.قالب:Which? This galvanized him into activity on a number of fronts, one of the most important being reform of the script. While Song did not himself actually create a system for spelling Sinitic languages, his discussion proved fertile and led to a proliferation of schemes for phonetic scripts.[10]
ويد–جايلز
The Wade–Giles system was produced by Thomas Wade in 1859, and further improved by Herbert Giles in the Chinese–English Dictionary of 1892. It was popular and used in English-language publications outside China until 1979.[12]
صين ونز
In the early 1930s, Communist Party of China leaders trained in Moscow introduced a phonetic alphabet using Roman letters which had been developed in the Soviet Oriental Institute of Leningrad and was originally intended to improve literacy in the Russian Far East.[13] This Sin Wenz or "New Writing"[14] was much more linguistically sophisticated than earlier alphabets, with the major exception that it did not indicate tones.[15]
رومنة يل
In 1943, the U.S. military engaged Yale University to develop a romanization of Mandarin Chinese for its pilots flying over China. The resulting system is very close to pinyin, but doesn't use English letters in unfamiliar ways; for example, pinyin x is written as sy. Medial semivowels are written with y and w (instead of pinyin i and u), and apical vowels (syllabic consonants) with r or z. Accent marks are used to indicate tone.
البزوغ وتاريخ الهان‌يو پن‌ين
Pinyin was created by a group of Chinese linguists, including Zhou Youguang who was an economist,[1] as part of a Chinese government project in the 1950s. Zhou, often called "the father of pinyin,"[1][16][17][18] worked as a banker in New York when he decided to return to China to help rebuild the country after the establishment of the People's Republic of China. Mao Zedong initially considered Latinizing written Chinese, but during his first official visit to the Soviet Union in 1949 Joseph Stalin convinced him to maintain the existing writing system.[19] Zhou became an economics professor in Shanghai, and in 1955, when China's Ministry of Education created a Committee for the Reform of the Chinese Written Language, Premier Zhou Enlai assigned Zhou Youguang the task of developing a new romanization system, despite the fact that he was not a professional linguist.[1]
Hanyu Pinyin was based on several existing systems, including: Gwoyeu Romatzyh of 1928, Latinxua Sin Wenz of 1931, and the diacritic markings from zhuyin (bopomofo).[20] "I'm not the father of pinyin," Zhou said years later; "I'm the son of pinyin. It's [the result of] a long tradition from the later years of the Qing dynasty down to today. But we restudied the problem and revisited it and made it more perfect."[21]
A draft was published on February 12, 1956. The first edition of Hanyu Pinyin was approved and adopted at the Fifth Session of the 1st National People's Congress on February 11, 1958. It was then introduced to primary schools as a way to teach Standard Chinese pronunciation and used to improve the literacy rate among adults.[22]
During the height of the Cold War, the use of pinyin system over the Yale romanization outside of China was regarded as a political statement or identification with the communist Chinese regime.[23] Beginning in the early 1980s, Western publications addressing Mainland China began using the Hanyu Pinyin romanization system instead of earlier romanization systems;[24] this change followed the normalization of diplomatic relations between the United States and the PRC in 1979.[25][26] In 2001, the PRC Government issued the National Common Language Law, providing a legal basis for applying pinyin.[22] The current specification of the orthographic rules is laid down in the National Standard GB/T 16159–2012.[27]
الأحرف الأولى والأخيرة
Unlike European languages, clusters of letters —initials (声母؛ 聲母؛ shēngmǔ�) and finals (韵母؛ 韻母؛ yùnmǔ�)— and not consonant and vowel letters, form the fundamental elements in pinyin (and most other phonetic systems used to describe the Han language). Every Mandarin syllable can be spelled with exactly one initial followed by one final, except for the special syllable er or when a trailing -r is considered part of a syllable (see below, and see erhua). The latter case, though a common practice in some sub-dialects, is rarely used in official publications.
Even though most initials contain a consonant, finals are not always simple vowels, especially in compound finals (复韵母؛ 複韻母؛ fùyùnmǔ�), i.e. when a "medial" is placed in front of the final. For example, the medials [i] and [u] are pronounced with such tight openings at the beginning of a final that some native Chinese speakers (especially when singing) pronounce yī (衣�, clothes, officially pronounced /í/) as /jí/ and wéi (围؛ 圍�, to enclose, officially pronounced /uěi/) as /wěi/ or /wuěi/. Often these medials are treated as separate from the finals rather than as part of them; this convention is followed in the chart of finals below.
الأحرف الأولى
| Bilabial | Labio- dental |
Alveolar | Retroflex | Alveolo- palatal |
Palatal | Velar | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Plosive | [p] b |
[pʰ] p |
[t] d |
[tʰ] t |
[k] g |
[kʰ] k | ||||||
| Nasal | [m] m |
[n] n |
||||||||||
| Lateral approximant | [l] l |
|||||||||||
| Affricate | [ts] z |
[tsʰ] c |
[ʈʂ] zh |
[ʈʂʰ] ch |
[tɕ] j |
[tɕʰ] q |
||||||
| Fricative | [f] f |
[s] s |
[ʂ] sh |
[ʐ] 1 r |
[ɕ] x |
[x] h | ||||||
| Approximant | [ɻ] 1 r |
[j]2 or [ɥ]3 y |
[w]2 w | |||||||||
1 /ɻ/ may phonetically be /ʐ/ (a voiced retroflex fricative). This pronunciation varies among different speakers, and is not two different phonemes.
2 the letters "w" and "y" are not included in the table of initials in the official pinyin system. They are an orthographic convention for the medials "i", "u" and "ü" when no initial is present. When "i", "u" or "ü" are finals and no initial is present, they are spelled "yi", "wu", and "yu", respectively.
3 "y" is pronounced as [ɥ] before "u".
Conventional order (excluding w and y), derived from the zhuyin system, is:
| b p m f | d t n l | g k h | j q x | zh ch sh r | z c s |
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الأحرف الأخيرة
قالب:Mandarin vowels In each cell below, the first line indicates IPA, the second indicates pinyin for a standalone (no-initial) form, and the third indicates pinyin for a combination with an initial. Other than finals modified by an -r, which are omitted, the following is an exhaustive table of all possible finals.1[28]
The only syllable-final consonants in Standard Chinese are -n and -ng, and -r, the last of which is attached as a grammatical suffix. A Chinese syllable ending with any other consonant either is from a non-Mandarin language (a southern Chinese language such as Cantonese, or a minority language of China; possibly reflecting final consonants in Old Chinese), or indicates the use of a non-pinyin romanization system (where final consonants may be used to indicate tones).
| Rime | ||||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| ∅ | -e/-o | -a | -ei | -ai | -ou | -ao | -n | -en | -an | -ng | -ong | -eng | -ang | er | ||
| Medial | ∅ | [ɨ] -i |
[ɤ] e -e |
[a] a -a |
[ei̯] ei -ei |
[ai̯] ai -ai |
[ou̯] ou -ou |
[au̯] ao -ao |
[ən] en -en |
[an] an -an |
[ʊŋ] -ong |
[əŋ] eng -eng |
[aŋ] ang -ang |
[ɚ] er 1 | ||
| y- -i- |
[i] yi -i |
[je] ye -ie |
[ja] ya -ia |
[jou̯] you -iu |
[jau̯] yao -iao |
[in] yin -in |
[jɛn] yan -ian |
[iŋ] ying -ing |
[jʊŋ] yong -iong |
[jaŋ] yang -iang |
||||||
| w- -u- |
[u] wu -u |
[wo] wo -uo 3 |
[wa] wa -ua |
[wei̯] wei -ui |
[wai̯] wai -uai |
[wən] wen -un |
[wan] wan -uan |
[wəŋ] weng |
[waŋ] wang -uang |
|||||||
| yu- -ü- |
[y] yu -ü 2 |
[ɥe] yue -üe 2 |
[yn] yun -ün 2 |
[ɥɛn] yuan -üan 2 |
||||||||||||
1 For other finals formed by the suffix -r, pinyin does not use special orthography; one simply appends r to the final that it is added to, without regard for any sound changes that may take place along the way. For information on sound changes related to final r, please see Erhua#Rules in Standard Mandarin.
2 ü is written as u after y, j, q, or x.
3 uo is written as o after b, p, m, f, or w.
Technically, i, u, ü without a following vowel are finals, not medials, and therefore take the tone marks, but they are more concisely displayed as above. In addition, ê [ɛ] (欸؛ 誒�) and syllabic nasals m (呒�, 呣�), n (嗯�, 唔�), ng (嗯�, 𠮾�) are used as interjections.
According to Scheme for the Chinese Phonetic Alphabet, ng can be abbreviated with a shorthand of ŋ. However, this shorthand is rarely used due to difficulty of entering them on computers.
The ü sound
An umlaut is placed over the letter u when it occurs after the initials l and n when necessary in order to represent the sound [y]. This is necessary in order to distinguish the front high rounded vowel in lü (e.g. 驴؛ 驢؛ 'donkey'�) from the back high rounded vowel in lu (e.g. 炉؛ 爐؛ 'oven'�). Tonal markers are added on top of the umlaut, as in lǘ.
However, the ü is not used in the other contexts where it could represent a front high rounded vowel, namely after the letters j, q, x, and y. For example, the sound of the word 鱼/魚 (fish) is transcribed in pinyin simply as yú, not as yǘ. This practice is opposed to Wade–Giles, which always uses ü, and Tongyong Pinyin, which always uses yu. Whereas Wade–Giles needs the umlaut to distinguish between chü (pinyin ju) and chu (pinyin zhu), this ambiguity does not arise with pinyin, so the more convenient form ju is used instead of jü. Genuine ambiguities only happen with nu/nü and lu/lü, which are then distinguished by an umlaut.
Many fonts or output methods do not support an umlaut for ü or cannot place tone marks on top of ü. Likewise, using ü in input methods is difficult because it is not present as a simple key on many keyboard layouts. For these reasons v is sometimes used instead by convention. For example, it is common for cellphones to use v instead of ü. Additionally, some stores in China use v instead of ü in the transliteration of their names. The drawback is that there are no tone marks for the letter v.
This also presents a problem in transcribing names for use on passports, affecting people with names that consist of the sound lü or nü, particularly people with the surname 吕 (Lǚ), a fairly common surname, particularly compared to the surnames 陆 (Lù), 鲁 (Lǔ), 卢 (Lú) and 路 (Lù). Previously, the practice varied among different passport issuing offices, with some transcribing as "LV" and "NV" while others used "LU" and "NU". On 10 July 2012, the Ministry of Public Security standardized the practice to use "LYU" and "NYU" in passports.[29][30]
Although nüe written as nue, and lüe written as lue are not ambiguous, nue or lue are not correct according to the rules; nüe and lüe should be used instead. However, some Chinese input methods (e.g. Microsoft Pinyin IME) support both nve/lve (typing v for ü) and nue/lue.
التقريب إلى نطق الإنگليزية
This section includes inline links to audio files. If you have trouble playing the files, see Wikipedia Media help.Most rules given here in terms of English pronunciation are approximations, as several of these sounds do not correspond directly to sounds in English.
Pronunciation of initials
| Pinyin | IPA | English approximation[31] | Explanation |
|---|---|---|---|
| b | [p] | spark | unaspirated p, as in spark |
| p | [pʰ] | pay | strongly aspirated p, as in pit |
| m | [m] | may | as in English mummy |
| f | [f] | fair | as in English fun |
| d | [t] | stop | unaspirated t, as in stop |
| t | [tʰ] | take | strongly aspirated t, as in top |
| n | [n] | nay | as in English nit |
| l | [l] | lay | as in English love |
| g | [k] | skill | unaspirated k, as in skill |
| k | [kʰ] | kay | strongly aspirated k, as in kiss |
| h | [x], [h] | loch | Varies between hat and Scottish loch. |
| j | [tɕ] | churchyard | Alveo-palatal. No equivalent in English, but similar to an unaspirated "-chy-" sound when said quickly. Like q, but unaspirated. Is similar to the English name of the letter G, but curl the tip of the tongue downwards to stick it at the back of the teeth. |
| q | [tɕʰ] | punch yourself | Alveo-palatal. No equivalent in English. Like punch yourself, with the lips spread wide as when one says ee. Curl the tip of the tongue downwards to stick it at the back of the teeth and strongly aspirate. |
| x | [ɕ] | push yourself | Alveo-palatal. No equivalent in English. Like -sh y-, with the lips spread as when one says ee and with the tip of the tongue curled downwards and stuck to the back of the teeth. |
| zh | [ʈʂ] | nurture | Unaspirated ch. Similar to hatching but retroflex, or marching in American English. Voiced in a toneless syllable. |
| ch | [ʈʂʰ] | church | Similar to chin, but retroflex. |
| sh | [ʂ] | shirt | Similar to shoe but retroflex, or marsh in American English. |
| r | [ɻ~ʐ] | ray | No equivalent in English, but similar to a sound between r in reduce and s in measure but with the tongue curled upward against the top of the mouth (i.e. retroflex). |
| z | [ts] | pizza | unaspirated c, similar to something between suds but voiceless, unless in a toneless syllable. |
| c | [tsʰ] | hats | like the English ts in cats, but strongly aspirated, very similar to the Czech, Polish, Esperanto, and Slovak c. |
| s | [s] | say | as in sun |
| w | [w] | way | as in water. Before an e or a it is sometimes pronounced like v as in violin.* |
| y | [j], [ɥ] | yes | as in yes. Before a u, pronounced with rounded lips, as if pronouncing German ü.* |
- * Note on y and w
Y and w are equivalent to the semivowel medials i, u, and ü (see below). They are spelled differently when there is no initial consonant in order to mark a new syllable: fanguan is fan-guan, while fangwan is fang-wan (and equivalent to *fang-uan). With this convention, an apostrophe only needs to be used to mark an initial a, e, or o: Xi'an (two syllables: [ɕi.an]) vs. xian (one syllable: [ɕi̯ɛn]). In addition, y and w are added to fully vocalic i, u, and ü when these occur without an initial consonant, so that they are written yi, wu, and yu. Some Mandarin speakers do pronounce a [j] or [w] sound at the beginning of such words—that is, yi [i] or [ji], wu [u] or [wu], yu [y] or [ɥy],—so this is an intuitive convention. See below for a few finals which are abbreviated after a consonant plus w/u or y/i medial: wen → C+un, wei → C+ui, weng → C+ong, and you → Q+iu.
- ** Note on the apostrophe
The apostrophe (') (隔音符号؛ 隔音符號؛ géyīn fúhào؛ 'syllable-dividing mark'�) is used before a syllable starting with a vowel (a, o, or e) in a multiple-syllable word, unless the syllable starts the word or immediately follows a hyphen or other dash. For example, 西安 is written as Xi'an or Xī'ān, and 天峨 is written as Tian'e or Tiān'é, but 第二 is written "dì-èr", without an apostrophe.[32] This apostrophe is not used in the Taipei Metro names.[33]
Apostrophes (as well as hyphens and tone marks) are omitted on Chinese passports.[34]
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Pronunciation of finals
قالب:IPA vowels The following is a list of finals in Standard Chinese, excepting most of those ending with r.
To find a given final:
- Remove the initial consonant. zh, ch, and sh count as initial consonants.
- Change initial w to u and initial y to i. For weng, wen, wei, you, look under ong, un, ui, iu.
- For u (including the ones starting with u) after j, q, x, or y, look under ü.
| Pinyin | IPA | Form with zero initial | Explanation |
|---|---|---|---|
| -i | [ɹ̩~z̩], [ɻ̩~ʐ̩] | (N/A) | -i is a buzzed continuation of the consonant following z-, c-, s-, zh-, ch-, sh- or r-. (In all other cases, -i has the sound of bee; this is listed below.) |
| a | [a] | a | like English father, but a bit more fronted |
| e | [ɤ] ( listen) |
e | a back, unrounded vowel (similar to English duh, but not as open). Pronounced as a sequence [ɰɤ]. |
| ai | [ai̯] | ai | like English eye, but a bit lighter |
| ei | [ei̯] | ei | as in hey |
| ao | [au̯] | ao | approximately as in cow; the a is much more audible than the o |
| ou | [ou̯] | ou | as in North American English so |
| an | [an] | an | like British English ban, but more central |
| en | [ən] | en | as in taken |
| ang | [aŋ] | ang | as in German Angst. (Starts with the vowel sound in father and ends in the velar nasal; like song in some dialects of American English) |
| eng | [əŋ] | eng | like e in en above but with ng appended |
| ong | [ʊŋ] | (weng) | starts with the vowel sound in book and ends with the velar nasal sound in sing. Varies between [oŋ] and [uŋ] depending on the speaker. |
| er | [aɚ̯] | er | Similar to the sound in bar in English. Can also be pronounced [ɚ] depending on the speaker. |
| Finals beginning with i- (y-) | |||
| i | [i] | yi | like English bee |
| ia | [ja] | ya | as i + a; like English yard |
| ie | [je] | ye | as i + ê where the e (compare with the ê interjection) is pronounced shorter and lighter |
| iao | [jau̯] | yao | as i + ao |
| iu | [jou̯] | you | as i + ou |
| ian | [jɛn] | yan | as i + an; like English yen. Varies between [jen] and [jan] depending on the speaker. |
| in | [in] | yin | as i + n |
| iang | [jaŋ] | yang | as i + ang |
| ing | [iŋ] | ying | as i + ng |
| iong | [jʊŋ] | yong | as i + ong. Varies between [joŋ] and [juŋ] depending on the speaker. |
| Finals beginning with u- (w-) | |||
| u | [u] | wu | like English oo |
| ua | [wa] | wa | as u + a |
| uo/o | [wo] | wo | as u + o where the o (compare with the o interjection) is pronounced shorter and lighter (spelled as o after b, p, m or f) |
| uai | [wai̯] | wai | as u + ai, as in English why |
| ui | [wei̯] | wei | as u + ei, as in English way |
| uan | [wan] | wan | as u + an |
| un | [wən] | wen | as u + en; as in English won |
| uang | [waŋ] | wang | as u + ang |
| (ong) | [wəŋ] | weng | as u + eng |
| Finals beginning with ü- (yu-) | |||
| ü | [y] ( listen) |
yu | as in German über or French lune (pronounced as English ee with rounded lips; spelled as u after j, q or x) |
| üe | [ɥe] | yue | as ü + ê where the e (compare with the ê interjection) is pronounced shorter and lighter (spelled as ue after j, q or x) |
| üan | [ɥɛn] | yuan | as ü + an. Varies between [ɥen] and [ɥan] depending on the speaker (spelled as uan after j, q or x) |
| ün | [yn] | yun | as ü + n (spelled as un after j, q or x) |
| Interjections | |||
| ê | [ɛ] | (N/A) | as in bet |
| o | [ɔ] | (N/A) | approximately as in British English office; the lips are much more rounded |
| io | [jɔ] | yo | as i + o |
الأنغام
The pinyin system also uses diacritics to mark the four tones of Mandarin. The diacritic is placed over the letter that represents the syllable nucleus, unless that letter is missing (see below).
If the tone mark is written over an i, the tittle above the i is omitted, as in yī.
Many books printed in China use a mix of fonts, with vowels and tone marks rendered in a different font from the surrounding text, tending to give such pinyin texts a typographically ungainly appearance. This style, most likely rooted in early technical limitations, has led many to believe that pinyin's rules call for this practice, e.g. the use of a Latin alpha (ɑ) rather than the standard style (a) found in most fonts, or g often written with a single-storey ɡ. The rules of Hanyu Pinyin, however, specify no such practice.[35]
- The first tone (flat or high-level tone) is represented by a macron (ˉ) added to the pinyin vowel:
- ā ē ī ō ū ǖ Ā Ē Ī Ō Ū Ǖ
- The second tone (rising or high-rising tone) is denoted by an acute accent (ˊ):
- á é í ó ú ǘ Á É Í Ó Ú Ǘ
- The third tone (falling-rising or low tone) is marked by a caron/háček (ˇ). It is not the rounded breve (˘), though a breve is sometimes substituted due to ignorance or font limitations.
- ǎ ě ǐ ǒ ǔ ǚ Ǎ Ě Ǐ Ǒ Ǔ Ǚ
- The fourth tone (falling or high-falling tone) is represented by a grave accent (ˋ):
- à è ì ò ù ǜ À È Ì Ò Ù Ǜ
- The fifth tone (neutral tone) is represented by a normal vowel without any accent mark:
- a e i o u ü A E I O U Ü
- In dictionaries, neutral tone may be indicated by a dot preceding the syllable; for example, ·ma. When a neutral tone syllable has an alternative pronunciation in another tone, a combination of tone marks may be used: zhī·dào (知道).[36]
Numerals in place of tone marks
Before the advent of computers, many typewriter fonts did not contain vowels with macron or caron diacritics. Tones were thus represented by placing a tone number at the end of individual syllables. For example, tóng is written tong². The number used for each tone is as the order listed above, except the neutral tone, which is either not numbered, or given the number 0 or 5, e.g. ma⁵ for 吗／嗎, an interrogative marker.
| Tone | Tone Mark | Number added to end of syllable in place of tone mark |
Example using tone mark |
Example using number |
IPA |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| First | macron ( ◌̄ ) | 1 | mā | ma1 | ma˥ |
| Second | acute accent ( ◌́ ) | 2 | má | ma2 | ma˧˥ |
| Third | caron ( ◌̌ ) | 3 | mǎ | ma3 | ma˨˩˦ |
| Fourth | grave accent ( ◌̀ ) | 4 | mà | ma4 | ma˥˩ |
| "Neutral" | No mark or middle dot before syllable ( ·◌ ) |
no number 5 0 |
ma ·ma |
ma ma5 ma0 |
ma |
Rules for placing the tone mark
Briefly, the tone mark should always be placed by the order—a, o, e, i, u, ü, with the only exception being iu, where the tone mark is placed on the u instead. Pinyin tone marks appear primarily above the nucleus of the syllable, for example as in kuài, where k is the initial, u the medial, a the nucleus, and i the coda. The exception is syllabic nasals like /m/, where the nucleus of the syllable is a consonant, the diacritic will be carried by a written dummy vowel.
When the nucleus is /ə/ (written e or o), and there is both a medial and a coda, the nucleus may be dropped from writing. In this case, when the coda is a consonant n or ng, the only vowel left is the medial i, u, or ü, and so this takes the diacritic. However, when the coda is a vowel, it is the coda rather than the medial which takes the diacritic in the absence of a written nucleus. This occurs with syllables ending in -ui (from wei: wèi → -uì) and in -iu (from you: yòu → -iù). That is, in the absence of a written nucleus the finals have priority for receiving the tone marker, as long as they are vowels: if not, the medial takes the diacritic.
An algorithm to find the correct vowel letter (when there is more than one) is as follows:[37]
- If there is an a or an e, it will take the tone mark
- If there is an ou, then the o takes the tone mark
- Otherwise, the second vowel takes the tone mark
Worded differently,
- If there is an a, e, or o, it will take the tone mark; in the case of ao, the mark goes on the a
- Otherwise, the vowels are -iu or -ui, in which case the second vowel takes the tone mark
The above can be summarized as the following table. The vowel letter taking the tone mark is indicated by the fourth-tone mark.
Placement of the tone mark in Pinyin -a -e -i -o -u a- ài ào e- èi i- ià, iào iè iò iù o- òu u- uà, uài uè uì uò ü- (üà) üè
Phonological intuition
The placement of the tone marker, when more than one of the written letters a, e, i, o, and u appears, can also be inferred from the nature of the vowel sound in the medial and final. The rule is that the tone marker goes on the spelled vowel that is not a (near-)semi-vowel. The exception is that, for triphthongs that are spelled with only two vowel letters, both of which are the semi-vowels, the tone marker goes on the second spelled vowel.
Specifically, if the spelling of a diphthong begins with i (as in ia) or u (as in ua), which serves as a near-semi-vowel, this letter does not take the tone marker. Likewise, if the spelling of a diphthong ends with o or u representing a near-semi-vowel (as in ao or ou), this letter does not receive a tone marker. In a triphthong spelled with three of a, e, i, o, and u (with i or u replaced by y or w at the start of a syllable), the first and third letters coincide with near-semi-vowels and hence do not receive the tone marker (as in iao or uai or iou). But if no letter is written to represent a triphthong's middle (non-semi-vowel) sound (as in ui or iu), then the tone marker goes on the final (second) vowel letter.
Using tone colors
In addition to tone number and mark, tone color has been suggested as a visual aid for learning. Although there are no formal standards, there are a number of different color schemes in use, Dummitt's being one of the first.
| Scheme | Tone 1 | Tone 2 | Tone 3 | Tone 4 | Neutral tone |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Dummitt[38] | red | orange | green | blue | none/black |
| MDBG | red | orange | green | blue | black |
| Unimelb[أ] | blue | green | purple | red | grey |
| Hanping[39] | blue | green | orange | red | grey |
| Pleco | red | green | blue | purple | grey |
| Thomas[أ] | green | blue | red | black | grey |
- ^ أ ب The colors used here to illustrate Unimelb and Thomas are only approximate. The precise color values used by Dummitt, the MDBG Chinese Online Dictionary, Hanping, and Pleco are taken from Laowai's blog Tone Colors and What Pleco Did with Them.
Indication of tone change in pinyin spelling
Tone sandhi (tone change) is usually not reflected in pinyin spelling — the underlying tone (i.e. the original tone before the sandhi) is still written. However, ABC English–Chinese, Chinese–English Dictionary (2010)[40] uses the following notation to indicate both the original tone and the tone after the sandhi:
- 一 (yī) pronounced in second tone (yí) is written as yị̄.[أ]
- e.g. 一共 (underlying yīgòng, realized as yígòng) is written as yị̄gòng
- 一 (yī) pronounced in fourth tone (yì) is written as yī̠.
- e.g. 一起 (underlying yīqǐ, realized as yìqǐ) is written as yī̠qǐ
- 不 (bù) pronounced in second tone (bú) is written as bụ̀.
- e.g. 不要 (underlying bùyào, realized as búyào) is written as bụ̀yào
- When there are two consecutive third-tone syllables, the first syllable is pronounced in second tone. A dot is added below to the third tone pronounced in second tone (i.e. written as ạ̌/Ạ̌, ẹ̌/Ẹ̌, ị̌,[أ] ọ̌/Ọ̌, ụ̌, and ụ̈̌).
- e.g. 了解 (underlying liǎojiě, realized as liáojiě) is written as liạ̌ojiě
Wenlin Software for learning Chinese also adopted this notation.
النطق
|
الحروف التقليدية: الحروف المبسطة: |
 عينة صوتية للنغمات الأربع هل لديك مشكلة في تشغيل هذا الملف؟ انظر مساعدة الوسائط. |
The words are "mother", "hemp", "horse", "scold" and a question particle, respectively.
الأرقام بدلاً من علامات التنغيم
| التنغيم | علامة التنغيم | رقم مضاف إلى نهاية مقطع بلدلاً من علامة التنغيم |
مثال باستخدام علامة تنغيم |
مثال باستخدام رقم |
IPA |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| First | macron ( ˉ ) | 1 | mā | ma1 | mɑ˥˥ |
| Second | acute accent ( ˊ ) | 2 | má | ma2 | mɑ˧˥ |
| Third | caron ( ˇ ) | 3 | mǎ | ma3 | mɑ˨˩˦ |
| Fourth | grave accent ( ˋ ) | 4 | mà | ma4 | mɑ˥˩ |
| "Neutral" | لا علامة أو نقطة قبل المقطع (·) |
لا رقم 5 0 |
ma ·ma |
ma ma5 ma0 |
mɑ |
قواعد لوضع علامات التنغيم
حرف "ü"
رسم مقارن
| IPA | ɑ | ɔ | ɤ | aɪ | eɪ | ɑʊ | ɤʊ | an | ən | ɑŋ | ɤŋ | ɑɻ | ʊŋ | i | iɛ | iɤʊ | iɛn | ɪn | ɪŋ |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| پن‌ين | a | o | e | ai | ei | ao | ou | an | en | ang | eng | er | ong | yi | ye | you | yan | yin | ying |
| Tongyong Pinyin | a | o | e | ai | ei | ao | ou | an | en | ang | eng | er | ong | yi | ye | you | yan | yin | ying |
| Wade-Giles | a | o | o/ê | ai | ei | ao | ou | an | ên | ang | êng | êrh | ung | i | yeh | yu | yen | yin | ying |
| Zhuyin | ㄚ | ㄛ | ㄜ | ㄞ | ㄟ | ㄠ | ㄡ | ㄢ | ㄣ | ㄤ | ㄥ | ㄦ | ㄨㄥ | ㄧ | ㄧㄝ | ㄧㄡ | ㄧㄢ | ㄧㄣ | ㄧㄥ |
| مثال | 阿 | 哦 | 俄 | 艾 | 黑 | 凹 | 偶 | 安 | 恩 | 昂 | 冷 | 二 | 中 | 一 | 也 | 又 | 言 | 音 | 英 |
| IPA | u | uɔ | ueɪ | uaɪ | uan | uən | uʊn | uɤŋ | uʊŋ | y | yɛ | yɛn | yn | iʊŋ |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| پن‌ين | wu | wo | wei | wai | wan | wen | weng | yu | yue | yuan | yun | yong | ||
| Tongyong Pinyin | wu | wo | wei | wai | wan | wun | wong | yu | yue | yuan | yun | yong | ||
| Wade-Giles | wu | wo | wei | wai | wan | wên | wêng | yü | yüeh | yüan | yün | yung | ||
| Zhuyin | ㄨ | ㄨㄛ | ㄨㄟ | ㄨㄞ | ㄨㄢ | ㄨㄣ | ㄨㄥ | ㄩ | ㄩㄝ | ㄩㄢ | ㄩㄣ | ㄩㄥ | ||
| مثال | 五 | 我 | 位 | 外 | 完 | 文 | 翁 | 玉 | 月 | 元 | 云 | 用 | ||
| IPA | p | pʰ | m | fəŋ | fʊŋ | tiou | tuei | tʰ | ny | ly | kəɻ | kʰ | xə |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| پن‌ين | b | p | m | feng | diu | dui | t | nü | lü | ger | k | he | |
| Tongyong Pinyin | b | p | m | fong | diou | duei | t | nyu | lyu | ger | k | he | |
| Wade-Giles | p | p' | m | fêng | tiu | tui | t' | nü | lü | kêrh | k' | ho | |
| Zhuyin | ㄅ | ㄆ | ㄇ | ㄈㄥ | ㄉㄧㄡ | ㄉㄨㄟ | ㄊ | ㄋㄩ | ㄌㄩ | ㄍㄜㄦ | ㄎ | ㄏㄜ | |
| مثال | 玻 | 婆 | 末 | 封 | 丟 | 兌 | 特 | 女 | 旅 | 歌儿 | 可 | 何 | |
| IPA | tɕiɛn | tɕyʊŋ | tɕʰɪn | ɕyɛn | ʈʂə | ʈʂɚ | ʈʂʰə | ʈʂʰɚ | ʂə | ʂɚ | ʐə | ʐɚ | tsə | tsuɔ | tsɨ | tsʰə | tsʰɨ | sə | sɨ |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Pinyin | jian | jiong | qin | xuan | zhe | zhi | che | chi | she | shi | re | ri | ze | zuo | zi | ce | ci | se | si |
| Tongyong Pinyin | jian | jyong | cin | syuan | jhe | jhih | che | chih | she | shih | re | rih | ze | zuo | zih | ce | cih | se | sih |
| Wade-Giles | chien | chiung | ch'in | hsüan | chê | chih | ch'ê | ch'ih | shê | shih | jê | jih | tsê | tso | tzŭ | ts'ê | tz'ŭ | sê | szŭ |
| Zhuyin | ㄐㄧㄢ | ㄐㄩㄥ | ㄑㄧㄣ | ㄒㄩㄢ | ㄓㄜ | ㄓ | ㄔㄜ | ㄔ | ㄕㄜ | ㄕ | ㄖㄜ | ㄖ | ㄗㄜ | ㄗㄨㄛ | ㄗ | ㄘㄜ | ㄘ | ㄙㄜ | ㄙ |
| مثال | 件 | 窘 | 秦 | 宣 | 哲 | 之 | 扯 | 赤 | 社 | 是 | 惹 | 日 | 仄 | 左 | 字 | 策 | 次 | 色 | 斯 |
| IPA | ma˥˥ | ma˧˥ | ma˨˩˦ | ma˥˩ | ma |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| پن‌ين | mā | má | mǎ | mà | ma |
| Tongyong Pinyin | ma | má | mǎ | mà | må |
| Wade-Giles | ma1 | ma2 | ma3 | ma4 | ma0 |
| Zhuyin | ㄇㄚ | ㄇㄚˊ | ㄇㄚˇ | ㄇㄚˋ | ㄇㄚ・ |
| مثال(تقليدية/مبسطة) | 媽/妈 | 麻/麻 | 馬/马 | 罵/骂 | 嗎/吗 |
پن‌ين في تايوان
لغات أخرى
| Customary | Official (pinyin for local name) | Chinese name | Pinyin for Chinese name |
|---|---|---|---|
| Shigatse | Xigazê | 日喀则 | Rìkāzé |
| Urumchi | Ürümqi | 乌鲁木齐 | Wūlǔmùqí |
| Lhasa | Lhasa | 拉萨 | Lāsà |
| Golmud | Golmud | 格尔木 | Gé'ěrmù |
- انظر أيضا: پن‌ين التبت
مقارنة مع أنواع أخرى من الهجاء
قراءات إضافية
- Gao, J. K. (2005). Pinyin shorthand: a bilingual handbook = [Pinyin su ji fa]. Dallas, TX: Jack Sun. ISBN 1599712512
- Kimball, R. L. (1988). Quick reference Chinese: a practical guide to Mandarin for beginners and travelers in English, Pinyin romanization, and Chinese characters. San Francisco, CA: China Books & Periodicals. ISBN 0835120368
- Wu, C.-j. (1979). The Pinyin Chinese-English dictionary. Hong Kong: Commercial Press. ISBN 0471275573
انظر أيضا
المصادر
- Yin Binyong 尹斌庸 and Mary Felley (1990). Chinese Romanization. Pronunciation and Orthography (Hanyu pinyin he zhengcifa 汉语拼音和正词法). Beijing: Sinolingua. ISBN 7-80052-148-6 / ISBN 0-8351-1930-0.
ملاحظات
- ^ أ ب ت ث ج Margalit Fox (14 January 2017). "Zhou Youguang, Who Made Writing Chinese as Simple as ABC, Dies at 111". The New York Times.
- ^ "Pinyin celebrates 50th birthday". Xinhua News Agency. 2008-02-11. Retrieved 2008-09-20.
- ^ "ISO 7098:1982 – Documentation – Romanization of Chinese". Retrieved 2009-03-01.
- ^ Shih Hsiu-Chuan (2008-09-18). "Hanyu Pinyin to be standard system in 2009". Taipei Times. p. 2.
- ^ "Government to improve English-friendly environment". The China Post. 2008-09-18.
- ^ Copper, John F. (2015). Historical Dictionary of Taiwan (Republic of China. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield. p. xv. ISBN 9781442243064. Retrieved 4 December 2017.
- ^ النسخة الأونلاين من the canonical[مطلوب توضيح "According to which group?"] Guoyu Cidian (《國語辭典》�) defines this term as: 標語音﹑不標語義的符號系統，足以明確紀錄某一種語言。�(A system of symbols for notation of the sounds of words, rather than for their meanings, that is sufficient to accurately record some language.) See this entry online. Retrieved 14 September 2012.
- ^ Sin, Kiong Wong (2012). Confucianism, Chinese History and Society. World Scientific. p. 72. ISBN 978-9814374477. Retrieved 13 July 2014.
- ^ Brockey, Liam Matthew (2009). Journey to the East: The Jesuit Mission to China, 1579–1724. Harvard University Press. p. 261. ISBN 978-0674028814. Retrieved 13 July 2014.
- ^ أ ب Chan, Wing-tsit; Adler, Joseph (2013). Sources of Chinese Tradition. Columbia University Press. pp. 303, 304. ISBN 978-0231517997. Retrieved 13 July 2014.
- ^ Mair, Victor H. (2002). "Sound and Meaning in the History of Characters: Views of China's Earliest Script Reformers". In Erbaugh, Mary S. (ed.). Difficult Characters: Interdisciplinary Studies of Chinese and Japanese Writing. Columbus, Ohio: Ohio State University National East Asian Language Resource Center.
- ^ Ao, Benjamin (1997). "History and Prospect of Chinese Romanization". Chinese Librarianship: an International Electronic Journal. 4.
- ^ Norman, Jerry (1988). Chinese, Cambridge Language Surveys. Cambridge University Press. p. 261. ISBN 0521296536. Retrieved 13 July 2014.
- ^ Jensen, Lionel M.; Weston, Timothy B. (2007). China's Transformations: The Stories Beyond the Headlines. Rowman & Littlefield. p. XX. ISBN 074253863X.
- ^ Chen, Ping (1999). Modern Chinese: History and Sociolinguistics. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521645727. Retrieved 13 July 2014.
- ^ "Father of pinyin". China Daily. 26 March 2009. Retrieved 12 July 2009. Reprinted in part as Simon, Alan (21–27 Jan 2011). "Father of Pinyin". China Daily Asia Weekly. Hong Kong. Xinhua. p. 20.
- ^ Dwyer, Colin (14 January 2017). "Obituary: Zhou Youguang, Architect Of A Bridge Between Languages, Dies At 111". NPR (in الإنجليزية). National Public Radio. Retrieved 2018-12-20.
- ^ Branigan, Tania (2008-02-21). "Sound Principles". The Guardian. London. Retrieved 2008-09-20.
- ^ Hessler, Peter (8 February 2004). "Oracle Bones". The New Yorker. Retrieved 17 March 2022.
- ^ Rohsenow, John S. 1989. Fifty years of script and written language reform in the PRC: the genesis of the language law of 2001. In Zhou Minglang and Sun Hongkai, eds. Language Policy in the People's Republic of China: Theory and Practice Since 1949, p. 23
- ^ Branigan, Tania (2008-02-21). "Sound principles". The Guardian. London.
- ^ أ ب "Hanyu Pinyin system turns 50". Straits Times. 2008-02-11. Retrieved 2008-09-20.
- ^ Wiedenhof, Jeroen (Leiden University) (2004). "Purpose and effect in the transcription of Mandarin".: 387–402, National Yunlin University of Science and Technology. "In the Cold War era, the use of this system outside China was typically regarded as a political statement, or a deliberate identification with the Chinese communist regime. (p390)"
- ^ Terry, Edith. How Asia Got Rich: Japan, China and the Asian Miracle. M.E. Sharpe, 2002. 632. Retrieved from Google Books on August 7, 2011. ISBN 0-7656-0356-X, 9780765603562.
- ^ Terry, Edith. How Asia Got Rich: Japan, China and the Asian Miracle. M.E. Sharpe, 2002. 633. Retrieved from Google Books on August 7, 2011. ISBN 0-7656-0356-X, 9780765603562.
- ^ Times due to revise its Chinese spelling, New York Times February 4 1979 page 10
- ^ "GB/T 16159-2012" (PDF). Retrieved 17 February 2020.
- ^ You can hear recordings of the Finals here Archived 9 يناير 2011 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Huang, Rong. 公安部最新规定 护照上的"ü"规范成"YU". Archived from the original on 14 يوليو 2014. Retrieved 29 أغسطس 2012.
- ^ Li, Zhiyan. "吕"拼音到怎么写？ 公安部称应拼写成"LYU". Archived from the original on 28 مايو 2013. Retrieved 23 أغسطس 2012.
- ^ Shea, Marilyn. "Pinyin / Ting - The Chinese Experience". hua.umf.maine.edu. Archived from the original on 12 June 2010. Retrieved 21 December 2010.
- ^ "Apostrophes in Hanyu Pinyin: when and where to use them". Archived from the original on 31 July 2010. Retrieved 27 April 2010.
- ^ 怪 北捷景安站 英譯如「金幹站」. Apple Daily (Taiwan). 23 December 2012. Retrieved 2 April 2019.
北市捷運局指出，目前有7大捷運站名英譯沒有隔音符號，常讓外國人問路鬧烏龍，如大安站「Daan」被誤唸為丹站、景安站「Jingan」變成金幹站等，捷運局擬加撇號「'」或橫線「-」，以利分辨音節。
- ^ Section 5.1.6 of the current standard GB/T 28039-2011 Chinese phonetic alphabet spelling rules for Chinese names
- ^ Tung, Bobby; Chen, Yijun; Liang, Hai; LIU, Eric Q.; Zhang, Aijie; Wu, Xiaoqian; Li, Angel; Ishida, Richard. "Requirements for Chinese Text Layout". W3C. Retrieved 18 March 2016.
- ^ Section 7.3 of the current standard GB/T 16159-2012.
- ^ Swofford, Mark. "Where do the tone marks go?". Pinyin.info. Retrieved 2008-09-20.
- ^ Dummitt, Nathan (2008). Chinese Through Tone & Color. Hippocrene Books. ISBN 978-0781812047.
- ^ "Hanping Chinese Dictionary Pro 3.2.11 released!". 2013-01-10. Retrieved 2020-11-26.
- ^ DeFrancis, John, ed. (2010). ABC English–Chinese, Chinese–English Dictionary. University of Hawai'i Press. ISBN 9780824834852.
وصلات خارجية
| سبقه گوويو روماتزيه |
Official romanization adopted by the People's Republic of China 1958- |
تبعه الحالي |
| سبقه پن‌ين تونگ‌يونگ |
Official romanization adopted by the Republic of China (Taiwan) 2009- |
تبعه الحالي |