إيجيپتياكا Aegyptiaca

For the fourth century BCE work known by the same title, see Hecataeus of Abdera. For the 1st century CE work, see Apion.

A fragment of the Aegyptiaca from Eusebius. Pages 2 and 3 of Manetho, with an English Translation, by W.G. Waddell (1940).

إيجيپتياكا ( Aegyptiaca ؛ Koine Greek: Αἰγυπτιακά, Aigyptiaka, "History of Egypt") كان تاريخاً لمصر القديمة كتبه باليونانية مانيتون (fl. 290 – 260 BCE), a high priest of the ancient Egyptian religion, in the early 3rd century BCE at the beginning of the Ptolemaic Kingdom of Egypt. As an Egyptian intellectual who wrote in Greek about his civilization's very long history—over two thousand years old when he wrote his history—Manetho mediated Egyptian and Greek cultures at the dawn of the Hellenistic period. His Aegyptiaca was a comprehensive history of ancient Egypt and stands as a unique achievement in the corpus of ancient Egyptian literature. It continues to be a vital subject in Egyptology, and an important resource in the refinement of Egyptian chronology.

كتب مانيثون تاريخه في ثمانية كتب باسم «ايجبتياكا» Aegyptiaca أي تاريخ مصر. وقد كتبه باللغة اليونانية نحو عام 280 ق.م، بتكليف من بطلميوس Ptolemaios الثاني فيلادلفيوس ، وقد ساعدته الدولة حينئذ بوضع كل ماتملك من مصادر ومايوجد في المعابد من وثائق تحت تصرفه، ولكن مما يؤسف له أنه لم يصلنا منه سوى فقرات يسيرة من خلال كتاب جوزيفوس Josephos «ضد أبيون» من القرن الأول الميلادي كما وصلتنا قوائم بأسماء ملوك الأسرات المصرية ومدد حكمهم مما نقله يوليوس أفريكانوس نحو 220 م وأوسبيوس نحو 320م. وآخر من نقل عن مانيثون الراهب جورجيس المسمى «سينكلوس» نحو 800م. ويمكن القول في هذا الصدد إن ما نقله أفريكانوس عن مانيثون كان الأكثر دقة، وما نقله سينكلوس الأكثر كمالاً. أما جوزيفوس فقد عمد إلى تزوير بعض الحقائق.

قسَّم مانيثون تاريخ مصر القديم إلى ثلاثين أسرة حاكمة، وقد أخذ الباحثون بهذا التقسيم لتوافقه مع القوائم الملكية المصرية المكتوبة على آثار مصر، ولكنه كتب أسماء الملوك المصرية باللغة الإغريقية، كما كان ينطقها الإغريق، وكانت طريقته في ترتيب أسماء الملوك كالآتي: رتب أسماء ملوك مصر القدامى حسب تسلسلهم الزمني، وكان يضع بجانب كل اسم ملك مدة حكمه، ثم يجمع الملوك الذين يتحدرون من جد واحد في أسرة حاكمة، نسبها إما للبلد الذي تنتسب إليه الأسرة، أو إلى العاصمة التي أقامت حكمها فيها. وأخيراً كان يرقم الأسر المصرية حسب تعاقبها من رقم 1 إلى 30، ويجمع مدة حكم كل أسرة. ويظن الباحثون المحدثون أن مانيثون قد أخذ منهجيته هذه عن بردية تورين التي كتبت في عصر الأسرة التاسعة عشرة، والتي قسّمت ملوك مصر إلى أسر حاكمة. وهكذا يمكن القول، إن الفضل في إرساء أسس كتابة التاريخ المصري القديم على قواعد صحيحة، إنما يعود إلى مانيثون الذي اعتمد في كتاباته على الآثار المصرية، وعلى المسارد المصرية القديمة عامة، وبردية تورين خاصة، في ترتيب تعاقب الأسر المصرية الحاكمة. فجاءت كتاباته أقرب ما تكون إلى الحقيقة، وقد أيدتها الكشوف الأثرية الحديثة، ولذلك أخذ الباحثون بمعظم ما جاء في كتابات مانيثون عن تاريخ مصر القديمة، التي ضمت ترتيب الأسر المصرية الحاكمة وبعض الأحداث التاريخية.

 انتقال معلومات مانيتو

انتقال معلومات مانيتو: جدول

Despite the reliance of Egyptologists on him for their reconstructions of the Egyptian dynasties, the problem with a close study of Manetho is that not only was Aegyptiaca not preserved as a whole, but it also became involved in a rivalry among advocates of Egyptian, Jewish, and Greek histories in the form of supporting polemics. During this period, disputes raged concerning the oldest civilizations, and so Manetho's account was probably excerpted during this time for use in this argument with significant alterations. Material similar to Manetho's has been found in Lysimachus of Alexandria, a brother of Philo, and it has been suggested that this was inserted into Manetho. We do not know when this might have occurred, but scholars specify a terminus ante quem at the first century AD, when Josephus began writing.

The earliest surviving attestation to Manetho is that of Contra Apionem ("Against Apion") by Flavius Josephus, nearly four centuries after Aegyptiaca was composed. Even here, it is clear that Josephus did not have the originals, and constructed a polemic against Manetho without them. Avaris and Osarseph are both mentioned twice (1.78, 86–87; 238, 250). Apion 1.95–97 is merely a list of kings with no narratives until 1.98, while running across two of Manetho's dynasties without mention (dynasties eighteen and nineteen).

Contemporaneously or perhaps after Josephus wrote, an epitome of Manetho's work must have been circulated. This would have involved preserving the outlines of his dynasties and a few details deemed significant. For the first ruler of the first dynasty, Menes, we learn that "he was snatched and killed by a hippopotamus". The extent to which the epitome preserved Manetho's original writing is unclear, so caution must be exercised. Nevertheless, the epitome was preserved by Sextus Julius Africanus and Eusebius of Caesarea. Because Africanus predates Eusebius, his version is usually considered more reliable, but there is no assurance that this is the case. Eusebius in turn was preserved by Jerome in his Latin translation, an Armenian translation, and by George Syncellus. Syncellus recognized the similarities between Eusebius and Africanus, so he placed them side by side in his work, Ecloga Chronographica.

Africanus, Syncellus, and the Latin and Armenian translations of Eusebius are what remains of the epitome of Manetho. Other significant fragments include Malalas's Chronographia and the Excerpta Latina Barbari, a bad translation of a Greek chronology.

 المصادر والطرق

Manetho's methods involved the use of king-lists to provide a structure for his history. There were precedents to his writing available in Egypt (plenty of which have survived to this day), and his Hellenistic and Egyptian background would have been influential in his writing. Josephus records him admitting to using "nameless oral tradition" (1.105) and "myths and legends" (1.229) for his account, and there is no reason to doubt this, as admissions of this type were common among historians of that era. His familiarity with Egyptian legends is indisputable, but how he learned Greek legends is more open to debate. He must have been familiar with Herodotus, and in some cases, he even attempted to synchronize Egyptian history with Greek (for example, equating King Memnon with Amenophis, and Armesis with Danaos). This suggests he was also familiar with the Greek Epic Cycle (for which the Ethiopian Memnon is slain by Achilles during the Trojan War) and the history of Argos (in Aeschylus's Suppliants). However, it has also been suggested that these were later interpolations, particularly when the epitome was being written, so these guesses are at best tentative.

At the very least, he wrote in fluent Koinê Greek.

 Synopsis

 Volume One

Covers dynasties I, II, III, IV, V, VI, VII, VIII, IX, X, XI

Modern chronology: Early Dynastic, Old Kingdom, First Intermediate, and early Middle Kingdom periods (c. 3100–1991 BCE)

Volume One of Manetho's Aegyptiaca presented a mythical "predynastic period" that began with the reign of ancient Egyptian deities (as their Greek equivalents; see explanatory note [e], interpretatio graeca) and then transitioned through the rule of demigods, heroes, and "spirits of the dead" to divinely-sanctioned human pharaohs. His human history covered about 1,110 years in the first volume. Starting at the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt under the first pharaoh Menes, he then progressed through the rulers of Dynasties I through XI.

Manetho portrayed Dynasties I-VI as a time of unity and innovation, particularly in the emergence of Egyptian hieroglyphics, pyramid-building, and medicine. In modern chronology, Dynasties I and II are considered the Early Dynastic and III–VI the Old Kingdom periods. While Manetho did not use the modern periodization of ancient Egypt, his outline of these early dynasties did emphasize the unity and antiquity of pharaonic rule from the start.

The Aegyptiaca next described a break in the unified succession of rulers, a rupture which he designated Dynasties VII–X and the early part of XI; these "dynasties" were in fact competing factional claimants, and the historicity of his Dynasty VII is disputed among scholars. Modern historians call this tumultuous era the First Intermediate period. Volume One concluded with the re-establishment of unified rule under the latter part of Dynasty XI, which marks the beginning of the Middle Kingdom of Egypt in modern chronology. Manetho intended to show Egypt's history as rooted in a unified kingdom ruled by a continuous succession of divinely-sanctioned dynasties.

 Volume Two

Covers dynasties XII, XIII, XIV, XV, XVI, XVII, XVIII, XIX

Modern Chronology: Middle Kingdom, Second Intermediate, beginning of New Kingdom periods (c. 1991–1189 BCE)

Volume Two spanned around 800 years of Egypt's history. It covered Dynasties XII through XIX. The stability established during the latter half of Dynasty XI continued into XII; this is the Middle Kingdom period in modern chronology. With Dynasties XIII and XIV, however, came a return to internal strife and with it, a less-clear succession of rulers. Manetho wrote that Dynasties XV–XVII marked the arrival and rule of foreign rulers that he called the Hyksos; this time is now known as the Second Intermediate Period. Manetho then told of the expulsion of the foreign rulers and the re-establishment of unified Egyptian rule. The era of imperial expansion and grandeur during Dynasties XVIII and XIX corresponds to the New Kingdom, and brought the second volume of Manetho's history to its close.

 Volume Three

Covers dynasties XX, XXI, XXII, XXIII, XXIV, XXV, XXVI, XXVII, XXVIII, XXIX, XXX, XXXI (contested)

Modern chronology: end of New Kingdom, Third Intermediate, and Late periods (c. 1189–332 BCE)

Volume Three of Manetho's Aegyptiaca covered nearly 860 years. It told of Dynasties XX–XXX (or XXXI); this included both Kushite (Ethiopian) (XXV) rulers and a native "Saite Renaissance" (XXVI). Achaemenid ("Persian") conquest interrupted native rule (XXVII), followed by three more native dynasties as Persian influence waned, then more Persian rulers of XXXI, and finally the Macedonians. Manetho's placement of the Macedonian Ptolemaic Dynasty at the beginning of a new era provides a fitting conclusion to his framework. Though its authenticity is debated, Manetho's inclusion of Dynasty XXXI aligns with his aim to document the totality of ruling powers since unification under the first pharaoh Menes some 2,700 years before the Aegyptiaca ends; his comprehensive history already included foreign rulers. XXXI was the last complete dynasty before what was, for Manetho, the start of Dynasty XXXII: the Ptolemies.

 Manetho and authorial intent

Manetho (fl. 290–260 BCE) was a priest—possibly a high priest of Ra in the temple at Heliopolis—who was likely native to Sebennytus (modern Samannud) in the Nile Delta. He lived at the dawn of the Hellenistic period (323–30 BCE), during the reign of Ptolemy I Soter (r. 303–282 BCE) or his son Ptolemy II Philadelphus (r. 285–246 BCE).

In writing his Aegyptiaca, Manetho sought to present the depth, grandeur, and primacy of his ancient country to its new rulers and to the wider Hellenistic world. As a Heliopolitan priest familiar with sacred records, Manetho likely contrasted his own superior sources with those of earlier Greek historians like Herodotus (c. 484 – c. 425 BCE) (known even in his own day as "the Father of Lies") with an aim to correct their accounts. Sebennytus had a strong Greek culture which certainly aided in the bilingual Manetho's familiarity with earlier Greek accounts of his country.

Manetho's decision to write in Koine Greek, which was to become the lingua franca of the ancient Eastern Mediterranean, was instrumental in allowing the Aegyptiaca to reach a broad audience and to become a foundational text for readers interested in Egypt's history. Aegyptiaca bridged Egyptian historical tradition and the Hellenistic world; its distribution enabled literate Greek-speakers to access Egypt's ancient—and alien— past. Manetho concluded his chronicle with the establishment of Ptolemaic rule, an event that marked Egypt's entry into the Greco-Roman world.

 Manetho's likely sources

Manetho's position would have given him unrestricted access to religious and regnal archives. These archives housed temple records, monumental inscriptions, and king-lists which detailed the sequence and reign lengths of the pharaohs. Surviving examples of Manetho's sources include the Abydos, Saqqara, and Turin King Lists. While primarily administrative in purpose, these lists were also of religious significance, as they linked historical pharaohs to ma'at, or divine order.

Drawing of the cartouches in the Abydos King List.

Drawing of the Saqqara King List based on photographs and drawings from 1864–65.

1904 version of attempt to assemble parts of the Turin King list

The Aegyptiaca opened with lists and narratives of the gods and divine kings who were believed to have laid Egypt's cultural foundations. To compose this mythical "pre-history", Manetho would have drawn upon sacred funerary texts such as the Pyramid and Coffin Texts. Priestly traditions such as genealogies, temple rituals, and accumulated lore would also have served as major sources.

Manetho may have also consulted earlier Egyptian historical or semi-historical writings, if such works were available during his time. It is plausible that earlier Egyptian historians or scribes compiled now-lost annals or chronicles; these could have provided narrative details for Manetho's accounts of names, events, and reigns. Furthermore, Manetho's work can be seen in the context of other historical accounts of Egypt written in Greek, such as that of Hecataeus of Abdera (c. 360–290 BCE, author of another lost work also entitled Aegyptiaca), though Manetho's was arguably more historically focused. Indeed, Manetho likely aimed to correct Greek historians, particularly Herodotus.

As a high priest of the Ancient Egyptian religion, Manetho's deep personal knowledge was itself an indispensable source for his history. His priestly knowledge encompassed Egyptian culture, religion, and language; it integrated oral traditions with religious mythology and written history to create a comprehensive narrative of the already-ancient Egyptian civilization.

 Transmission and corruption of the original

The loss of Manetho's original Aegyptiaca makes impossible a direct engagement with his work; the "Aegyptiaca" as we know it is a reconstruction assembled from fragments preserved—or corrupted—by later authors. This indirect transmission occurred particularly through excerpts used in Hellenistic-era polemics between Egyptians and Jews claiming cultural primacy, and later by early Christian writers attempting to reconcile Biblical chronology with histories from other ancient sources, such as Manetho's. This has resulted in significant difficulties in discerning Manetho's original text, a major challenge in Classics.

The four authors from whom we have the most extensive fragments of Manetho's work are:

• Josephus (c. 37–100 CE) a Hellenized Jew, defector, and courtier to the Flavian dynasty of pagan Rome;
• Sextus Julius Africanus (c. 160–c. 240), an early Christian historian;
• Eusebius (c. 260–339), another early Christian; and
• George Syncellus (d.a. 810), Byzantine writer of chronicles.

• 

  Flavius Josephus

• 

  Sextus Julius Africanus

• 

  Eusebius of Caesarea

• 

  From the Chronicle of Syncellus

Their method of transmission was typically the epitome; these were summaries and excerpts of the original work that they then incorporated into their own writings, thus introducing their own interpretations and biases into Manetho's text.

Josephus claims to quote Manetho—and does so liberally—in his polemic Against Apion. He used Manetho's text selectively, highlighting points that he thought supported canonical Jewish history and dismissing or arguing against those that did not, all in service of establishing a longer and more venerable Jewish past.

Josephus is the earliest known writer to cite pseudo-Manethonian material (i.e., works historically attributed to Manetho but not accepted as such by modern scholars). His polemic provides us with what may be some of the most substantial surviving fragments of Manetho, it is imperative to recognize that these fragments were likely constructs themselves—that is, summaries of Manetho's work made by others, and curated by Josephus to meet his own ends. Scholars treat his quotations as valuable evidence but also approach them with a critical eye, acknowledging the potential for alteration, interpolation, misinterpretation, or selective presentation. Indeed, scholarly attempts to disentangle genuine fragments from later interpolations have proven inconclusive.

According to Josephus in Against Apion, some of Manetho's anecdotes on Dynasty XV (the Hyksos) focused on the Jews of Egypt. In Josephus's telling, Manetho claimed that these Jews were descendants of foreign conquerors who, mixed with a band of Egyptian lepers and famous for their cruelty and misanthropy, were deposed and then banished to the city of Avaris before finally being expelled from the country. (See Osarseph.)

According to Israeli historian and outspoken Zionist Benzion Netanyahu, Manetho's work was antisemitic. Netanyahu claims that when the work was composed, Egypt's Jews were enjoying a positive reputation and were assimilated into Hellenistic culture. Manetho, according to Netanyahu—who takes Josephus at his word—aimed to undermine their reputation as part of a rebellion against Greek power in Egypt, and wrote the Aegyptiaca or this section of it with this explicit purpose. On the basis of Josephus's commentary on Manetho, Russian-Israeli scholar Victor Tcherikover claimed that "Antisemitism was born in Egypt."

While Josephus had explicit apologetic aims in bolstering Jewish history against Greek and Egyptian claims of greater antiquity, the Christian writers Africanus, Eusebius, and Syncellus sought to establish the historical grounding and timeline of their faith. This led to attempts to synchronize Manetho's version of Egyptian history with the chronology of the Bible, all within the context of competing claims to primacy. Their epitomes exhibit discrepancies.

What remains of these fragments is not the original Aegyptiaca itself, but rather a collection of summaries of dynasties and reigns, transliterated names of kings, occasional anecdotes or myths embedded within later putative quotations, and chronological data such as lengths of individual and dynastic reigns. While some of this material likely reflects Manetho's original text, other parts may represent later additions, errors introduced during transmission, or the interpretations of those who transmitted the fragments.

 Reconstructing the Aegyptiaca

Modern scholars approach reconstruction by comparing surviving epitomes and weighing the potential influence of the polemical aims of the later authors on their texts. Scholars also cross-reference this textual evidence with archaeological findings, aligning king names and reign lengths with the inscriptions, tombs, and monuments which offer independent perspectives. Surviving native Egyptian king-lists provide valuable tools for verifying or correcting the order of rulers, as they are unadulterated by later external historical debates. Furthermore, linguistic analysis aids in matching Manetho's Greek renderings of names with their original Egyptian forms, potentially stripping away some of the later interpretive layers added by ancient cultural claimants.

Ultimately, our understanding of Manetho's Aegyptiaca is as a composite of partial quotations, summaries, and later historians' versions of the original text, frequently altered to fit a particular argument in an ancient contest to "prove" cultural and religious primacy through greater antiquity. The reliance on this fragmented and altered evidence necessitates caution when attempting to identify Manetho's original history.

Waddell quoted German classicist August Böckh (1785–1867) as an epigraph to his Manetho of 1940:

"Never has there arisen a more complicated problem than that of Manetho."

— Böckh, Manetho und die Hundssternperiode, 1845, p. 10

 Legacy of the Aegyptiaca

The Aegyptiaca's most significant legacy is its dynastic framework. This division of Egyptian rulers into thirty or thirty-one dynasties remains fundamental to Egyptology; it endures despite its initial flaws and the passage of over two millennia. Since Syncellus used it in the 9th century CE, Manetho's dynastic system has been the standard approach for presenting the history of Pharaonic Egypt, and scholars continue to employ it as an essential organizational tool.

Manetho's decision to write his Aegyptiaca in Koine Greek rather than in Egyptian—with its hieroglyphic and demotic scripts—was a fortuitous one. This choice ensured that his work could be read not just in his own Hellenistic world, but that it would remain accessible long after the ancient Egyptian language and its writing systems had fallen into disuse by the fifth century CE.

For centuries before the decipherment of ancient Egyptian scripts, the surviving fragments of the Aegyptiaca served as the main textual basis for understanding the sequence of Egyptian rulers, forming a critical foundation for early Egyptological scholarship. Notably, Jean-François Champollion relied on its king-lists as a key to his pioneering translation of those scripts.

Despite its fragmentary state, the Aegyptiaca has allowed scholars from classical and late antiquity through the modern era to encounter Egypt's profoundly ancient history. As a native educated Egyptian who wrote for a foreign audience, Manetho, through his Aegyptiaca, offered a unique perspective—and one that endures to this day—on Egypt's deep past and its new place in a changing world.

 See also

• Chronicon (Eusebius)
• Excerpta Latina Barbari
• Hecataeus of Abdera
• Osarseph

 References

 Bibliography

• Candelora, Danielle (2024). "The Second Intermediate Period". Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History. doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.013.1201. ISBN 978-0-19-027773-4. Retrieved 28 April 2025.
• Greenberg, Gary (1995). "Manetho's 7th and 8th Dynasties: A Puzzle Solved". Journal of the Society for the Study of Egyptian Antiquities. XXV: 50–55.
• Iversen, Erik (1993). The Myth of Egypt and Its Hieroglyphs in European Tradition. Princeton University Press.
• Loprieno, Antonio (1995). Ancient Egyptian: A Linguistic Introduction. Cambridge University Press.
• Lloyd, Alan Brian; Hopkinson, Neil (March 7, 2016). "Manetho, fl. 280 BCE". Oxford Classical Dictionary. doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.013.3913. ISBN 978-0-19-938113-5. Retrieved May 16, 2025.
• Schneider, Thomas (2008). "Periodizing Egyptian History: Manetho, Convention, and Beyond". In Klaus-Peter Adam (ed.). Historiographie in der Antike. Walter de Gruyter. pp. 181–197. ISBN 978-3-11-020672-2.
• Verbrugghe, Gerald; Wickersham, John Moore (2001). Berossos and Manetho, Introduced and Translated: Native Traditions in Ancient Mesopotamia and Egypt. University of Michigan Press. ISBN 9780472086870. Retrieved 28 April 2025.
• Waddell, William Gillan (1940). Manetho; with an English translation. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.

 External links

• "Jacoby Online". Brill Scholarly Editions. Retrieved May 17, 2025.
• Lundström, Peter. "Comparing the king lists of Manetho". pharaoh.se. Archived from the original on March 1, 2023.
• Manetho; Waddell, William Gillan (January 15, 2014). "Manetho: History of Egypt". demonax.info. Retrieved May 13, 2025.
• Manetho; Waddell, William Gillan (November 11, 2024). "The Fragments of Manetho". penelope.uchicago.edu. Transcribed by Bill Thayer. Retrieved May 5, 2025.

 Further reading

• Assmann, Jan (2014). From Akhenaten to Moses: Ancient Egypt and Religious Change. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9789774166310.
• Assmann, Jan (2018). The Invention of Religion: Faith and Covenant in the Book of Exodus. Princeton University Press. ISBN 9781400889235.
• Assmann, Jan (2003). The Mind of Egypt: History and Meaning in the Time of the Pharaohs. Harvard University Press. ISBN 9780674012110.
• Clagett, Marshall (1995), Ancient Egyptian Science: A Source Book, Vol. II: Calendars, Clocks, and Astronomy, Memoirs of the APS, No. 214, Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, ISBN 9780871692146, https://books.google.com/books?id=xKKPUpDOTKAC 
• Clayton, Peter A. (1994). Chronicle of the Pharaohs. London: Thames and Hudson. ISBN 978-0-500-05074-3.
• Dillery, John (1999). "The First Egyptian Narrative History: Manetho and Greek Historiography". Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik. 127: 93–116. JSTOR 20190475.
• Escolano-Poveda, Marina (2020). The Egyptian Priests of the Graeco-Roman Period: An Analysis on the Basis of the Egyptian and Graeco-Roman Literary and Paraliterary Sources. Harrassowitz Verlag. doi:10.2307/j.ctv15vwk37.
• Josephus, Flavius; Barclay, John M.G. (2011). Flavius Josephus: Translation and Commentary. Vol. 10: Against Apion. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-11791-4.
• Leahy, Anthony, ed. (1990). Libya and Egypt: c. 1300–750 BC. SOAS Centre of Near and Middle Eastern Studies and the Society for Libyan Studies. ISBN 9780728601741.
• Magli, Giulio (2013). Architecture, Astronomy and Sacred Landscape in Ancient Egypt. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-139-42455-4.
• Morris, Ian; Scheidel, Walter (May 4, 2025). "What is Ancient History?". Daedalus. 145 (2): 113–121. doi:10.1162/DAED_a_00381.
• Moyer, Ian S. (2011). Egypt and the Limits of Hellenism. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781139496551.
• Nagy, Gregory (August 8, 2013). "Comments on Plutarch's Essay On Isis and Osiris". The Center for Hellenic Studies. Retrieved May 6, 2025.
• Nuzzolo, Massimiliano; Krejci, Jaromir (2017). "Heliopolis and the Solar Cult in the Third Millennium BC". Ägypten und Levante. 27: 357–380. doi:10.1553/AEundL27s357.
• Redford, Donald Bruce (1986). Lesko, Leonard H. (ed.). Egyptological Studies in Honor of Richard A. Parker Presented on the Occasion of His 78th Birthday, December 10, 1983. Hannover and London: University Press of New England. pp. 118–121. ISBN 9780874513219.
• Redford, Donald Bruce (1986). Pharaonic king-lists, annals, and day-books: a contribution to the study of the Egyptian sense of history. Mississauga: Benben. ISBN 0920168078.
• Rutherford, Ian (2016). Greco-Egyptian Interactions: Literature, Translation, and Culture, 500 BC–AD 300. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199656127.
• Schneider, Thomas (2023). Language Contact in Ancient Egypt. Zurich: LIT Verlag. ISBN 978-3-643-96507-3.
• Synkellos, Geōrgios (2002). The Chronography of George Synkellos: a Byzantine Chronicle of Universal History from the Creation. Translated by Adler, William; Tuffin, Paul. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0199241902.
• Thompson, Dorothy J. (2012). Memphis Under the Ptolemies (2nd ed.). Princeton University Press. doi:10.2307/j.ctv1n9dknx. ISBN 9780691140339.