المعرفة

درم، إنجلترة

(تم التحويل من درهام)
هذا المقال هو عن the city. إذا كنت تريد the county، انظر County Durham و County Durham (district). إذا كنت تريد other uses، انظر Durham (disambiguation).
لمعلومات عن المدينة الأمريكية، انظر درم، كارولينا الشمالية.
لمعلومات عن كل الاستخدامات الأخرى، انظر درم (توضيح).

دِرَم ( Durham ؛ /ˈdʌrəm/ DURR-əm, locally /ˈdɜrəm/ listen (info))[a] هي مدينة في مقاطعة درهام بإنجلترا.[3][4] بلغ عدد سكانها حوالي 48,069 نسمة (في عام 2011). وتتمتَّع هذه المدينة بالحكم المحلي. وهذه المدينة مدينة صناعية في المقام الأول، ولكن يوجد اهتمام أيضًا بالزراعة في هذه المقاطعة. وقد حلّت صناعة المواد البلاستيكية، والألياف الصناعية والغزل والنسيج والأثاث والملابس محل الصناعات التقليدية المحلية مثل صناعة السجاد. يعتبر الاشتغال بالهندسة والطباعة وتعبئة الجعة في هذه المدينة من الصناعات الهامة أيضًا.

Durham
City and civil parish

Arms of Durham
الدرع
Durham is located in مقاطعة درم
Durham
Durham
Location within County Durham
Area12 sq mi (31 km2) [1]
Population48٬069 (2011 BUASD)[2]
• Density4,006/sq mi (1,547/km2)
تأسست995م
Civil parish established1 April 2018
Civil parish
  • مدينة درم
Unitary authority
Ceremonial county
Region
CountryEngland
Sovereign stateUnited Kingdom
Post townDurham
Postcode districtDH1, DH6, DH7
Dialling code0191
PoliceDurham
FireCounty Durham and Darlington
AmbulanceNorth East
EU ParliamentNorth East England
Websitecityofdurham-pc.gov.uk
List of places
UK
England
County Durham
54°46′34″N 1°34′24″W / 54.7761°N 1.5733°W / 54.7761; -1.5733Coordinates: 54°46′34″N 1°34′24″W / 54.7761°N 1.5733°W / 54.7761; -1.5733

The city was built on a meander of the River Wear, which surrounds the centre on three sides and creates a narrow neck on the fourth. The surrounding land is hilly, except along the Wear's floodplain to the north and southeast. Durham was founded in 995 by Anglo-Saxon monks seeking a place safe from Viking raids to house the relics of St Cuthbert. The church the monks built lasted only a century, as it was replaced by the present Durham Cathedral after the Norman Conquest; together with Durham Castle it is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. From the 1070s until 1836 the bishops of Durham ruled the County Palatine of Durham, a semi-independent jurisdiction. During the Industrial Revolution the Durham coalfield was heavily exploited, and there were several collieries close to the city; although the pits have closed, the annual Durham Miners' Gala continues. Historically, Durham was also known for the manufacture of hoisery, carpets, and mustard.[5]

The city is the home of Durham University, which was founded in 1832 and therefore has a claim to be the third-oldest university in England. The university is a significant employer, alongside the local and national government and the University Hospital of North Durham, and the city has a significant tourism sector.[6] HM Prison Durham is also located close to the city centre.

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اسم المكان

The name "Durham" comes from the Brythonic element dun, signifying a hill fort and related to -ton, and the Old Norse holme, which translates to island.[7] The Lord Bishop of Durham takes a Latin variation of the city's name in his official signature, which is signed "N. Dunelm".[7] Some attribute the city's name to the legend of the Dun Cow and the milkmaid who in legend guided the monks of Lindisfarne carrying the body of Saint Cuthbert to the site of the present city in 995 AD.[8] Dun Cow Lane is said to be one of the first streets in Durham, being directly to the east of Durham Cathedral and taking its name from a depiction of the city's founding etched in masonry on the south side of the cathedral.[8] The city has been known by a number of names throughout history. The original Nordic Dun Holm was changed to Duresme by the Normans and was known in Latin as Dunelm. The modern form Durham came into use later in the city's history. The north-eastern historian Robert Surtees chronicled the name changes in his History and Antiquities of the County Palatine of Durham but states that it is an "impossibility" to tell when the city's modern name came into being.[7]

Durham is likely to be Gaer Weir in Armes Prydein, derived from Brittonic cajr meaning "an enclosed, defensible site" (cf. Carlisle; Welsh caer) and the river-name Wear.[9]


التاريخ

التاريخ المبكر

Archeological evidence suggests a history of settlement in the area since roughly 2000 BC.[7] The present city can clearly be traced back to AD 995, when a group of monks from Lindisfarne chose the strategic high peninsula as a place to settle with the body of Saint Cuthbert, that had previously lain in Chester-le-Street, founding a church there.[8]

City origins, the Dun Cow story

 
Legend of the founding of Durham (from a carving on the north side of the cathedral)

Local legend states that the city was founded in A.D. 995 by divine intervention. The 12th-century chronicler Symeon of Durham recounts that after wandering in the north, Saint Cuthbert's bier miraculously came to a halt at the hill of Warden Law and, despite the effort of the congregation, would not move.[10] Aldhun, Bishop of Chester-le-Street and leader of the order, decreed a holy fast of three days, accompanied by prayers to the saint.[11] During the fast, Saint Cuthbert appeared to a certain monk named Eadmer, with instructions that the coffin should be taken to Dun Holm.[11] After Eadmer's revelation, Aldhun found that he was able to move the bier, but did not know where Dun Holm was.[11]

The legend of the Dun Cow, which is first documented in The Rites of Durham, an anonymous account about Durham Cathedral, published in 1593, builds on Symeon's account.[12] According to this legend, by chance later that day, the monks came across a milkmaid at Mount Joy (southeast of present-day Durham). She stated that she was seeking her lost dun cow, which she had last seen at Dun Holm. The monks, realising that this was a sign from the saint, followed her.[11] They settled at a wooded "hill-island" – a high wooded rock surrounded on three sides by the River Wear.[11] There they erected a shelter for the relics, on the spot where Durham Cathedral would later stand.[11] Symeon states that a modest wooden building erected there shortly thereafter was the first building in the city.[10] Bishop Aldhun subsequently had a stone church built, which was dedicated in September 998.[13] This no longer remains, having been supplanted by the Norman structure.

The legend is interpreted by a Victorian relief stone carving on the north face of the cathedral and, more recently, by the bronze sculpture 'Durham Cow' (1997, Andrew Burton), which reclines by the River Wear in view of the cathedral.

Medieval era

 
A map of the city from 1610

During the medieval period the city gained spiritual prominence as the final resting place of Saint Cuthbert and Saint Bede the Venerable. The shrine of Saint Cuthbert, situated behind the High Altar of Durham Cathedral, was the most important religious site in England until the martyrdom of St Thomas Becket at Canterbury in 1170.[8]

Saint Cuthbert became famous for two reasons. Firstly, the miraculous healing powers he had displayed in life continued after his death, with many stories of those visiting the saint's shrine being cured of all manner of diseases. This led to him being known as the "wonder worker of England".[8] Secondly, after the first translation of his relics in 698 AD, his body was found to be incorruptible.[14] Apart from a brief translation back to Holy Island during the Norman Invasion[15] the saint's relics have remained enshrined to the present day.[16] Saint Bede's bones are also entombed in the cathedral, and these also drew medieval pilgrims to the city.[8]

Durham's geographical position has always given it an important place in the defence of England against the Scots.[17] The city played an important part in the defence of the north, and Durham Castle is the only Norman castle keep never to have suffered a breach.[18] In 1314, the Bishopric of Durham paid the Scots a 'large sum of money' not to burn Durham.[19] The Battle of Neville's Cross, took place near the city on 17 October 1346 between the English and Scots and was a disastrous loss for the Scots.[20]

The city suffered from plague outbreaks in 1544, 1589 and 1598.[21]

Bishops of Durham

انظر أيضاً: Bishop of Durham and County Palatine of Durham

Owing to the divine providence evidenced in the city's legendary founding, the Bishop of Durham has always enjoyed the title "Bishop by Divine Providence"[22] as opposed to other bishops, who are "Bishop by Divine Permission".[7] However, as the north-east of England lay so far from Westminster, the bishops of Durham enjoyed extraordinary powers such as the ability to hold their own parliament,[7] raise their own armies,[8] appoint their own sheriffs and Justices, administer their own laws, levy taxes and customs duties, create fairs and markets, issue charters,[10] salvage shipwrecks, collect revenue from mines, administer the forests and mint their own coins.[7] So far-reaching were the bishop's powers that the steward of Bishop Antony Bek commented in 1299 AD: "There are two kings in England, namely the Lord King of England, wearing a crown in sign of his regality and the Lord Bishop of Durham wearing a mitre in place of a crown, in sign of his regality in the diocese of Durham".[23] All this activity was administered from the castle and buildings surrounding the Palace Green.[8] Many of the original buildings associated with these functions of the county palatine survive on the peninsula that constitutes the ancient city.[17]

 
The entrance to Durham Castle, the bishops' palace until 1832 when it moved to Auckland Castle

From 1071 to 1836 the bishops of Durham ruled the county palatine of Durham.[24] Although the term "prince bishop" has been used as a helpful tool in the understanding the functions of the bishops of Durham in this era, it is not a title they would have recognised.[8] The last bishop to rule the palatinate, Bishop William Van Mildert,[8] is credited with the foundation of Durham University in 1832. Henry VIII curtailed some of the bishop's powers and, in 1538, ordered the destruction of the shrine of Saint Cuthbert.[8]

A UNESCO site describes the role of the bishops in the "buffer state between England and Scotland":[25]

From 1075, the Bishop of Durham became a Prince-Bishop, with the right to raise an army, mint his own coins, and levy taxes. As long as he remained loyal to the king of England, he could govern as a virtually autonomous ruler, reaping the revenue from his territory, but also remaining mindful of his role of protecting England’s northern frontier.

Legal system

The bishops had their own court system, including most notably the Court of Chancery of the County Palatine of Durham and Sadberge.[26] The county also had its own attorney general,[17] whose authority to bring an indictment for criminal matters was tested by central government in the case of R v Mary Ann Cotton (1873).[27][need quotation to verify][28][صفحة مطلوبة] Certain courts and judicial posts for the county were abolished by the Supreme Court of Judicature Act 1873. Section 2 of the Durham (County Palatine) Act 1836 and section 41 of the Courts Act 1971 abolished others.

Civil War and Cromwell (1640 to 1660)

 
View of Durham Cathedral and its surroundings c. 1850

The city remained loyal to King Charles I in the English Civil War – from 1642 to the execution of the king in 1649. Charles I came to Durham three times during his reign of 1625–1649. Firstly, he came in 1633[29] to the cathedral for a majestic service in which he was entertained by the Chapter and Bishop at great expense. He returned during preparations for the First Bishops' War (1639).[30] His final visit to the city came towards the end of the civil war; he escaped from the city as Oliver Cromwell's forces got closer.[31][need quotation to verify][32] Local legend [33] stated that he escaped down the Bailey and through Old Elvet. Another local legend has it that Cromwell stayed in a room in the present Royal County Hotel on Old Elvet during the civil war.[34] The room is reputed to be haunted by his ghost.[35] Durham suffered greatly during the civil war (1642–1651) and Commonwealth (1649–1660). This was not due to direct assault by Cromwell or his allies, but to the abolition of the Church of England[33] and the closure of religious institutions pertaining to it. The city has always relied upon the Dean and Chapter and cathedral as an economic force.

The castle suffered considerable damage and dilapidation during the Commonwealth due to the abolition of the office of bishop (whose residence it was). Cromwell confiscated the castle and sold it to the Lord Mayor of London shortly after taking it from the bishop.[34] A similar fate befell the cathedral, it being closed in 1650 and used to incarcerate 3,000 Scottish prisoners.[34] Graffiti left by them can still be seen today etched into the interior stone.[36]

At the Restoration in 1660, John Cosin (a former canon) was appointed bishop (in office: 1660–1672) and set about a major restoration project. This included the commissioning of the famous elaborate woodwork in the cathedral choir, the font cover and the Black Staircase in the castle.[37] Bishop Cosin's successor Bishop Lord Nathaniel Crewe (in office: 1674–1721) carried out other renovations both to the city and to the cathedral.


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18th century

In the 18th century a plan to turn Durham into a seaport through the digging of a canal north to join the River Team, a tributary of the River Tyne near Gateshead, was proposed by John Smeaton.[38] Nothing came of the plan, but the statue of Neptune in the Market Place was a constant reminder of Durham's maritime possibilities.[39]

The thought of ships docking at the Sands or Millburngate remained fresh in the minds of Durham merchants. In 1758, a new proposal hoped to make the Wear navigable from Durham to Sunderland by altering the river's course, but the increasing size of ships made this impractical. Moreover, Sunderland had grown as the north east's main port and centre for shipping.[40][صفحة مطلوبة]

In 1787 Durham infirmary was founded.[21]

The 18th century also saw the rise of the trade-union movement in the city.

19th century

 
Durham Cathedral and Durham Castle as seen from the river bank whilst a boat race takes place between University College, Durham and Newcastle University

The Municipal Corporations Act 1835 gave governing power of the town to an elected body.[41] All other aspects of the Bishop's temporal powers were abolished by the Durham (County Palatine) Act 1836 and returned to the Crown.[42][43]

The Representation of the People Act 2000 and is regarded as the second most senior bishop and fourth most senior clergyman in the Church of England.[44] The Court of Claims of 1953 granted the traditional right of the bishop to accompany the sovereign at the coronation,[45] reflecting his seniority.[8]

The first census, conducted in 1801,[46] states that Durham City had a population of 7,100. The Industrial Revolution mostly passed the city by. However, the city was well known for carpet making and weaving. Although most of the mediaeval weavers who thrived in the city had left by the 19th century, the city was the home of Hugh MacKay Carpets’ factory, which produced the famous brands of axminster and tufted carpets until the factory went into administration in April 2005.[47] Other important industries were the manufacture of mustard and coal extraction.[48]

The Industrial Revolution also placed the city at the heart of the coalfields,[49] the county's main industry until the 1970s. Practically every village around the city had a coal mine and, although these have since disappeared as part of the regional decline in heavy industry, the traditions, heritage and community spirit are still evident.

The 19th century also saw the founding of Durham University[50] thanks to the benevolence of Bishop William Van Mildert and the Chapter in 1832. Durham Castle became the first college[48] (University College, Durham) and the bishop moved to Auckland Castle as his only residence in the county. Bishop Hatfield's Hall (later Hatfield College, Durham) was added in 1846 specifically for the sons of poorer families, the Principal inaugurating a system new to English university life of advance fees to cover accommodation and communal dining.

The first Durham Miners' Gala was attended by 5,000 miners in 1871 in Wharton Park,[51] and remains the largest socialist trade union event in the world.[48]

20th century

Early in the 20th century coal became depleted, with a particularly important seam worked out in 1927, and in the following Great Depression Durham was among those towns that suffered exceptionally severe hardship.[52] However, the university expanded greatly. St John's College and St Cuthbert's Society were founded on the Bailey, completing the series of colleges in that area of the city. From the early 1950s to early 1970s the university expanded to the south of the city centre. Trevelyan, Van Mildert, Collingwood, and Grey colleges were established, and new buildings for St Aidan's and St Mary's colleges for women, formerly housed on the Bailey, were created. The final 20th century collegiate addition came from the merger of the independent nineteenth-century colleges of the Venerable Bede and St Hild, which joined the university in 1979 as the College of St Hild and St Bede.[53] The 1960s and 70s also saw building on New Elvet. Dunelm House for the use of the students' union was built first, followed by Elvet Riverside, containing lecture theatres and staff offices. To the southeast of the city centre sports facilities were built at Maiden Castle, adjacent to the Iron Age fort of the same name, and the Mountjoy site was developed, starting in 1924, eventually containing the university library, administrative buildings, and facilities for the Faculty of Science.[53]

 
View over the university's Mountjoy site towards the cathedral.

Durham was not bombed during World War II, though one raid on the night of 30 May 1942 did give rise to the local legend of 'St Cuthbert's Mist'. This states that the Luftwaffe attempted to target Durham, but was thwarted when Cuthbert created a mist that covered both the castle and cathedral, sparing them from bombing. The exact events of the night are disputed by contemporary eyewitnesses.[51] The event continues to be referenced within the city, including inspiring the artwork 'Fogscape #03238' at Durham Lumiere 2015.[54]

'Durham Castle and Cathedral' was named a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1986. Among the reasons given for the decision were 'Durham Cathedral [being] the largest and most perfect monument of "Norman" style architecture in England', and the cathedral's vaulting being an early and experimental model of the gothic style.[55] Other important UNESCO sites near Durham include Auckland Castle, North of England Lead Mining Museum and Beamish Museum. [56]

الجغرافيا

العامة

Place Distance Direction Relation
London 234 miles (377 km) South Capital
Darlington 17 miles (27 km) South Largest place in the county
South Shields 16 miles (26 km) North east Combined authority area
Gateshead 12 miles (19 km) North Combined authority area
Sunderland 11 miles (18 km) North east Next nearest city
Washington 8 miles (13 km) North east Combined authority area
 
The River Wear at Durham, looking toward Milburngate Bridge

The River Wear flows north through the city, making an incised meander which encloses the centre on three sides to form Durham's peninsula. At the base of the peninsula is the Market Place, which still hosts regular markets; a permanent indoor market, Durham Indoor Market, is also situated just off the Market Place. The Market Place and surrounding streets are one of the main commercial and shopping areas of the city. From the Market Place, the Bailey leads south past Palace Green; The Bailey is almost entirely owned and occupied by the university and the cathedral.

Durham is a hilly city, claiming to be built upon the symbolic seven hills. Upon the most central and prominent position high above the Wear, the cathedral dominates the skyline. The steep riverbanks are densely wooded, adding to the picturesque beauty of the city. West of the city centre, another river, the River Browney, drains south to join the Wear to the south of the city.

 
Saddler Street looking to the market square

There are three old roads out of the Market Place: Saddler Street heads south-east, towards Elvet Bridge, the Bailey and Prebends Bridge. Elvet Bridge leads to the Elvet area of the city, Durham Prison and the south; Prebends Bridge is smaller and provides access from the Bailey to south Durham. Heading west, Silver Street leads out of the Market Place towards Framwellgate Bridge and North Road, the other main shopping area of the city. From here, the city spreads out into the Framwelgate, Crossgate, Neville's Cross and viaduct districts, which are largely residential areas. Beyond the viaduct lie the outlying districts of Framwellgate Moor and Neville's Cross. Heading north from the Market Place leads to Claypath. The road curves back round to the east and beyond it lie Gilesgate, Gilesgate Moor and Dragonville.

Green belt

للمزيد من المعلومات: North East Green Belt

As part of the wider Tyne and Wear Green Belt area, Durham's portion extends beyond its urban area extents of Framwellgate Moor/Pity Me, Elvet and Belmont, it being completely surrounded by green belt. This primarily helps to maintain separation from Chester-le-Street,[57] and restrain expansion of the city and coalescence with nearby villages such as Bearpark, Great Lumley and Sherburn. Landscape features and facilities within the green belt area include Raintonpark Wood, Belmont Viaduct, Ramside Hall, Durham City Golf Course, the River Wear, Browney and Deerness basins, and Durham University Botanic Gardens. It was first drawn up in the 1990s.[58]


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التاريخية

 
Sir Walter Scott's words on Durham are inscribed into Prebends Bridge

The historic city centre of Durham has changed little over 200 years. It is made up of the peninsula containing the cathedral, palace green, former administrative buildings for the palatine and Durham Castle.[10] This was a strategic defensive decision by the city's founders and gives the cathedral a striking position.[17] So much so that Symeon of Durham stated:

To see Durham is to see the English Sion and by doing so one may save oneself a trip to Jerusalem.[10]

Sir Walter Scott was so inspired by the view of the cathedral from South Street[59] that he wrote "Harold the Dauntless", a poem about Saxons and Vikings set in County Durham and published on 30 January 1817. The following lines from the poem are carved into a stone tablet on Prebends Bridge:

Grey towers of Durham
Yet well I love thy mixed and massive piles
Half church of God, half castle 'gainst the Scot
And long to roam those venerable aisles
With records stored of deeds long since forgot.[60]

المباني المميزة

كاتدرائية درم

المقالة الرئيسية: كاتدرائية درم
 
كاتدرائية درم من إلڤـِت.

وتشتمل المباني التاريخية في درهام على كاتدرائية درهام وقلعة، ويوجد بها أيضًا متحف للفن الشرقي.

 
قلعة درم، منظر الحارس

الحوكمة

 
العلم التقليدي لدرم

الاقتصاد

 
سوق درم
Year Regional Gross Value Added[61] Agriculture[62] Industry[63] Services[64]
1995 4,063 47 1,755 2,261
2000 4,783 40 1,840 2,904
2003 5,314 39 1,978 3,297


البلدات التوأم

انظر أيضاً

الهامش

  1. ^ خطأ استشهاد: وسم <ref> غير صحيح؛ لا نص تم توفيره للمراجع المسماة areas
  2. ^ خطأ استشهاد: وسم <ref> غير صحيح؛ لا نص تم توفيره للمراجع المسماة durham city 2011
  3. ^ "City of Durham". Ordnance Survey. Archived from the original on 3 May 2018. Retrieved 20 May 2018.
  4. ^ "The Durham County Council (Reorganisation of Community Governance) Order 2017" (PDF). Lgbce. Archived (PDF) from the original on 21 May 2018. Retrieved 20 May 2018.
  5. ^   Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Durham (city)" . دائرة المعارف البريطانية. Vol. 8 (eleventh ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 708–710, see page 710. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  6. ^ "Theme 3: A City With a Diverse and Resilient Economy | Durham City Neighbourhood Plan" (in الإنجليزية البريطانية). Retrieved 18 June 2023.
  7. ^ أ ب ت ث ج ح خ Surtees, R. (1816) History and Antiquities of the County Palatine of Durham (Classical County Histories)
  8. ^ أ ب ت ث ج ح خ د ذ ر ز س Liddy, Christian D (2008). The Bishopric of Durham in the Late Middle Ages: Lordship, Community and the Cult of St. Cuthbert. Boydell Press. ISBN 978-1-84383-377-2.
  9. ^ James, Alan G. "A Guide to the Place-Name Evidence – Guide to the Elements" (PDF). Scottish Place Name Society – The Brittonic Language in the Old North. Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 March 2019. Retrieved 25 October 2018.
  10. ^ أ ب ت ث ج Symeon of Durham, Libellus de exordio atque procurso istius, hoc est Dunhelmensis (Tract on the origins and progress of this the church of Durham)
  11. ^ أ ب ت ث ج ح Dufferwiel, Martin (2004/1996). Durham: Over 1,000 Years of History and Legend. Edinburgh: Mainstream Publishing. ISBN 9781840189148. Chapter 1, "Beginnings".
  12. ^ Fowler, Joseph Thomas (1891). "Preface", in Fowler (Ed.), The Life of St. Cuthbert in English Verse, C. A.D. 1450: From the Original Ms. in the Library at Castle Howard. Publications of the Surtees Society, vol. 87. Durham: Andrews & Co., for the Society. p. xi.
  13. ^ Crook, John (2000). The Architectural Setting of the Cult of Saints in the Early Christian West, c. 300–c. 1200. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 9780198207948. p. 167.
  14. ^ Missale Romanum (Roman missal)
  15. ^ The Lives of the Saints as contained in the "New English Missal"
  16. ^ Durham Cathedral Illustrated Guide (available from the Cathedral Bookshop)
  17. ^ أ ب ت ث Richardson, Michael (2007). Durham City: Past & Present. Breedon Books Publishing Co Ltd. ISBN 978-1-85983-581-4.
  18. ^ Brown, Nicholas (1931) Durham Castle
  19. ^ Maxwell, Sir Herbert (1913). The Chronicle of Lanercost. Macmillan and Co. p. 210.
  20. ^ Gray, Sir Thomas (2005). Scalacronica. Boydell Press. p. 137.
  21. ^ أ ب "Stockton Masonic Hall | History of Durham". Archived from the original on 31 May 2019. Retrieved 31 May 2019.
  22. ^ The Forms of Precidents of the Catholic Church as contained in the Catholic Encyclopaedia (1919)
  23. ^ As stated in Liddy, Christian D. (2008) The Bishopric of Durham in the Late Middle Ages: Lordship, Community and the Cult of St. Cuthbert. The attribution of the quote is questionable (see County Palatine); however, the editor of this article is almost certain it is attributable to Antony Bek's steward.
  24. ^   Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Durham (county)" . دائرة المعارف البريطانية. Vol. 8 (eleventh ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 706–708. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  25. ^ "The Prince Bishops of Durham". Durham World Heritage Site. 11 July 2011. Archived from the original on 28 October 2019. Retrieved 5 November 2019.
  26. ^ "BISHOPRIC OF DURHAM – Hansard, 10 June 1836". Archived from the original on 25 June 2009. Retrieved 3 December 2009.
  27. ^ Whiehead, Alan Mary Ann Cotton: Dead but not forgotten (Durham Records Office: 2004)
  28. ^ Compare: Whitehead, Tony (2000). Mary Ann Cotton, Dead, But Not Forgotten. T. Whitehead. ISBN 9780953961405. Retrieved 3 July 2018.
  29. ^ Dufferwiel, Martin (1996). "10: The King, the Covenanters and Oliver Cromwell". Durham: Over 1,000 Years of History and Legend (reprint ed.). Edinburgh: Random House (published 2011). ISBN 9781780573946. Retrieved 30 October 2019. [...] an account of the King's first visit to Durham. The occasion arose in 1633 during Charles's journey north to Edinburgh and his coronation on the throne of Scotland.
  30. ^ Dufferwiel, Martin (1996). "10: The King, the Covenanters and Oliver Cromwell". Durham: Over 1,000 Years of History and Legend (reprint ed.). Edinburgh: Random House (published 2011). ISBN 9781780573946. Retrieved 30 October 2019. [...] the occasion of Charles's second visit to Durham. On 29 April 1639, he was again received [...] at Raby Castle [...]. He then proceeded to Durham where he remained while forces of horse and foot were raised in readiness for the march to the border.
  31. ^ Noble, Mark (1798). The Lives of the English Regicides: And Other Commissioners of the Pretended High Court of Justice, Appointed to Sit in Judgement Upon Their Sovereign, King Charles the First. J. Stockdale. Retrieved 30 October 2019.
  32. ^ Compare: Dufferwiel, Martin (1996). "10: The King, the Covenanters and Oliver Cromwell". Durham: Over 1,000 Years of History and Legend (reprint ed.). Edinburgh: Random House (published 2011). ISBN 9781780573946. Retrieved 30 October 2019. [...] in 1647, he would make his final visit to Durham as a prisoner on his way south to his eventual trial and execution.
  33. ^ أ ب The Society of Charles the King and Martyr: Newsletter (12)
  34. ^ أ ب ت (1798) Noble, Mark: The Lives of the English Regicides: And Other Commissioners of the Pretended High Court of Justice, Appointed to Sit in Judgment Upon Their Sovereign, King Charles the First
  35. ^ Deary, Terry (2001). Deadly Durham. County Durham Books. ISBN 978-1-897585-64-1.
  36. ^ Durham Cathedral Guidebook (available from the cathedral)
  37. ^ http://www.durham.ac.uk Archived 21 يوليو 2002 at the Wayback Machine (see University College homepage)
  38. ^ Hadfield, Charles (1997). "Rivers and canals". The civil engineering of canals and railways before 1850. Routledge. pp. 49–79. doi:10.4324/9781315240633-3. ISBN 9781315240633. Retrieved 11 October 2021.
  39. ^ Simpson, David. "Market Place, Silver Street and Saddler Street (Durham City)". Archived from the original on 9 February 2009. Retrieved 23 July 2009. Neptune, God of the sea, symbolised an ambitious plan to turn Durham into an inland sea port by altering the course of the River Wear. In 1720 the plan was to construct a canal north to join the Team, a Tyne tributary near Gateshead.
  40. ^ Blake, D. (1998) The North East.
  41. ^ Northern Europe: International Dictionary of Historic Places. Routledge. 28 October 2013. p. 240. ISBN 978-1884964015. Retrieved 5 November 2019.
  42. ^ "The Bishops of Durham". Dicese of Durham. 11 July 2013. Archived from the original on 28 October 2019. Retrieved 5 November 2019.
  43. ^ The Statutes of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. His Majesty's Statute and Law Printers. 1836. p. 130. bishop of durham temporal Powers by Palatine Act 1836.
  44. ^ The Canons of the Church of England
  45. ^ The Proceedings of the Court of Claims at the Coronation of Her Majesty Elizabeth II
  46. ^ The Census
  47. ^ The Proceedings of the High Court of Justice 1995
  48. ^ أ ب ت Simpson, David (2006). Durham City. Business Education Publishers Ltd. ISBN 978-1-901888-50-8.
  49. ^ Nixon, P: A Portrait of Durham
  50. ^ The Durham University Act, 1882 and the Royal Charter for the Founding of the University of Durham
  51. ^ أ ب Dufferwiel, Martin (1996). Durham: A Thousand Years of History and Legend. Edinburgh and London: Mainstream Publishing. pp. 167–169. ISBN 1-85158-885-X.
  52. ^ Life Magazine 14 December 1936, pp. 40–41
  53. ^ أ ب Pevsner, Nikolaus; Williamson, Elizabeth (1985). The Buildings of England: Durham. Yale University Press. pp. 231–249. ISBN 978-0-300-09599-9.
  54. ^ "Fogscape #03238". Archived from the original on 11 January 2017. Retrieved 3 November 2016.
  55. ^ Centre, UNESCO World Heritage. "Durham Castle and Cathedral". whc.unesco.org (in الإنجليزية). Archived from the original on 22 June 2016. Retrieved 3 November 2016.
  56. ^ "Top 5 Heritage Attractions in and around Durham". Archived from the original on 31 October 2019. Retrieved 31 October 2019.
  57. ^ "County Durham Core Evidence Base Technical Paper No. 6 Settlements and Green Belt -COUNTY DURHAM GREEN BELT Rationale" (PDF). www.durham.gov.uk. Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 January 2018. Retrieved 27 January 2018.
  58. ^ "PLANNING AND HIGHWAYS COMMITTEE 21 NOVEMBER 2012 THE COUNTY DURHAM PLAN, LOCAL PLAN PREFERED [sic] OPTIONS". www.sunderland.gov.uk. Archived from the original on 22 November 2018. Retrieved 27 January 2018.
  59. ^ Buchan, John (1932). "Sir Walter Scott". Cassell. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  60. ^ Scott, Walter (1817). "Harold the Dauntless". James Eastburn & co. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  61. ^ Components may not sum to totals due to rounding
  62. ^ includes hunting and forestry
  63. ^ includes energy and construction
  64. ^ includes financial intermediation services indirectly measured

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