المعرفة

جورتشن (شعب)

(تم التحويل من جورچن (شعب))


جورتشن/جورچن Jurchens أو جورچد Jurcheds‏[4] (لغة الجورچن: Jurchen.png jušen) كانوا شعباً تنگوسياً سكن منطقة شمال شرق الصين، الذي عُرف لاحقاً بإسم منشوريا حتى القرن 17، حين بدأوا في تسمية أنفسهم شعب المانشو بأمر من هونگ تاي‌جي.[5] Different Jurchen groups lived as hunter-gatherers, pastoralist semi-nomads, or sedentary agriculturists. Generally lacking a central authority, and having little communication with each other, many Jurchen groups fell under the influence of neighbouring dynasties, their chiefs paying tribute and holding nominal posts as effectively hereditary commanders of border guards.[6]

Jurchen people
Chinese name
الصينية女真
الصينية التقليدية女眞
South Korean name
هانگول여진
North Korean name
تشوسونگول녀진
Russian name
RussianЧжурчжэни
RomanizationChzhurchzheni
Khitan name
Khitandʒuuldʒi (女直)[2]
Mongolian name
MongolianЗүрчид, Зөрчид, Жүрчид[بحاجة لمصدر]
Zürchid, Zörchid, Jürchid[3]
Middle Chinese name
Middle Chinese/ɳɨʌX t͡ɕiɪn/

Chinese officials of the Ming dynasty (1368-1644) classified them into three groups, reflecting relative proximity to China:

  1. Jianzhou (Chinese: 建州) Jurchens, some of whom were mixed with Korean and Chinese populations[بحاجة لمصدر], lived in the proximity of the Mudan river, the Changbai mountains, and Liaodong. They were noted as able to sew clothes similar to the Chinese, and lived by hunting and fishing, sedentary agriculture, and trading in pearls and ginseng.
  2. Haixi (Chinese: 海西) Jurchens, named after the Haixi or Songhua river, included several populous and independent tribes, largely divided between semi-nomadic pastoralists in the west and sedentary agriculturalists in the east. They were the Jurchens most strongly influenced by the Mongols.
  3. Yeren (Chinese: 野人, lit. 'Wild People,' or, 'savage,' 'barbarian'), a term sometimes used by Chinese and Korean commentators to refer to all Jurchens. It more specifically referred to the inhabitants of the sparsely populated north of Manchuria beyond the Liao and Songhua river valleys, supporting themselves by hunting, fishing, pig farming, and some migratory agriculture.[6]

Many "Yeren Jurchens", like the Nivkh (speaking a language isolate), Negidai, Nanai, Oroqen and many Evenks, are today considered distinct ethnic groups.

أسس الجورچن أسرة جين (1115–1234) (Ancun gurun بلغة الجورچن الأقدم و Aisin gurun بلغة المانشو الفصحى)، وهي الدولة التي هزمت أسرة سونگ في 1127 أثناء حروب الجن والسونگ، فسيطرت على معظم شمال الصين.

The Jurchens are chiefly known for producing the Jin (1115–1234) and Qing (1616/1636-1912) conquest dynasties on the Chinese territory. The latter dynasty, originally calling itself the Later Jin, was founded by a Jianzhou commander, Nurhaci (r. 1616–26), who unified most Jurchen tribes, incorporated their entire population into hereditary military regiments known as the Eight Banners, and patronized the creation of an alphabet for their language based on the Mongolian script. The term Manchu, already in official use by the Later Jin at that time,[7] was in 1635 decreed to be the sole acceptable name for that people.

سيطرة جين على الصين استمرت حتى 1234 عندما فتحها المنغول.

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الاسم

 
خريطة إيطالية منشورة في 1682 تبيّن "مملكة نيوتشى Niuche" (أي، Nǚzhēn) أو "تتار تشين (جين)"، الذين "احتلوا وفي الوقت الحاضر يحكموا الصين"، شمال لياودونگ وكوريا.

The name Jurchen is derived from a long line of other variations of the same name.

The initial Khitan form of the name was said to be Lüzhen. The variant Nrjo-tsyin (now صينية: 女真 Nüzhen, whence English Nurchen) appeared in the 10th century under the Liao dynasty.[8] The Jurchens were also interchangeably known as the Nrjo-drik (now صينية: 女直 Nüzhi). This is traditionally explained as an effect of the Chinese naming taboo, with the character 真 being removed after the 1031 enthronement of Zhigu, Emperor Xingzong of Liao, because it appeared in the sinified form of his personal name.[8] Aisin-Gioro Ulhicun, however, argues that this was a later folk etymology and the original reason was uncertainty among dialects regarding the name's final -n.[9]

The form Niuche was introduced to the West by Martino Martini in his 1654 work De bello tartarico historia, and it soon appeared, e.g., on the 1660 world map by Nicolas Sanson.

Jurchen is an anglicization of Jurčen,[3][10] an attempted reconstruction of this unattested original form of the native name,[11] which has been transcribed into Middle Chinese as Trjuwk-li-tsyin (竹里真)[أ] and into Khitan small script as Julisen.[9] The ethnonyms Sushen (Old Chinese: */siwk-[d]i[n]-s/) and Jizhen (稷真, Old Chinese: */tsək-ti[n]/)[12] recorded in geographical works like the Classic of Mountains and Seas and the Book of Wei are possibly cognates.[13] It was the source of Fra Mauro's Zorça[10] and Marco Polo's Ciorcia,[14] reflecting the Persian form of their name.[10] Vajda considers that the Jurchens' name probably derives from the Tungusic words for "reindeer people" and is cognate with the names of the Orochs of Khabarovsk Province and the Oroks of Sakhalin.[15] ("Horse Tungus" and "Reindeer Tungus" are still the primary divisions among the Tungusic cultures.)[16]

Janhunen argues that these records already reflect the Classical Mongolian plural form of the name, recorded in the Secret History as J̌ürčät,[11] and further reconstructed as *Jörcid,[14] The modern Mongolian form is Зүрчид (Zürčid) whose medial -r- does not appear in the later Jurchen Jucen[14] or Jušen (Jurchen: )[17][ب] or Manchu Jushen.[14] In Manchu, this word was more often used to describe the serfs[17]—though not slaves[18]—of the free Manchu people,[17] who were themselves mostly the former Jurchens. To describe the historical people who founded the Jin dynasty, they reborrowed the Mongolian name as Jurcit.[14][8]


المظهر

According to William of Rubruck, the Jurchens were "swarthy like Spaniards."[19]

Sin Chung-il, a Korean emissary who in 1595 had visited the Jurchen living north-west of the Yalu River, notes that during his visit to Fe Ala all those who served Nurhaci were uniform in their dress and hairstyle. They all shaved a portion of their scalp and kept the remaining hair in a long plaited braid. All men wore leather boots, breeches, and tunics.[20]

التاريخ

انظر أيضاً: خط زمني للجورچن

الأصل

 
سكان سيبيريا يصطادون الرنة

Mohe origin

When the Jurchens first entered Chinese records in 748, they inhabited the forests and river valleys of the land which is now divided between China's Heilongjiang Province and Russia's Primorsky Krai province. In earlier records, this area was known as the home of the Sushen (1100ح. 1100 BC), the Yilou (around AD 200), the Wuji (500ح. 500), and the Mohe (700ح. 700).[21] Scholarship since the Qing period traces the origin of the Jurchens to the "Wanyen tribe of the Mohos" around Mt Xiaobai, or to the Heishui or Blackwater Mohe,[22] and some sources stress the continuity between these earlier peoples with the Jurchen[23] but this remains conjectural.[24]

The tentative ancestors of the Jurchens, the Tungusic Mohe tribes, were people of the multi-ethnic kingdom of Balhae. The Mohe enjoyed eating pork, practiced pig farming extensively, and were mainly sedentary. They used both pig and dog skins for coats. They were predominantly farmers and grew soybean, wheat, millet, and rice in addition to hunting.[25] Like all Tungus people, the Mohe practiced slavery. Horses were rare in the region they inhabited until the 10th century under the domination of the Khitans. The Mohe rode reindeer.[26]

Wanyan origin

There is no dated evidence of the Jurchens before the time of Wugunai (1021-74), when the Jurchens began to coalesce into a nation-like federation. According to tradition passed down via oral transmission, Wugunai was the 6th generation descendant of Hanpu, the founder of the Wanyan clan, who therefore must have lived around the year 900.[27] Hanpu originally came from the Heishui Mohe tribe of Balhae. According to the History of Jin, when he came to the Wanyan tribe, it was for the repayment of a murder and a form of compensation. He had two brothers, one who stayed in Goryeo and the other in Balhae when he left. By the time he arrived and settled among the Wanyan, he was already 60 years old and accepted as a "wise man". He succeeded in settling a dispute between two families without resorting to violence, and as a reward, was betrothed to a worthy unmarried maiden also 60 years old. The marriage was blessed with the gift of a dark ox, which was revered in Jurchen culture, and from this union came one daughter and three sons. With this, Hanpu became the chief of the Wanyan and his descendants became formal members of the Wanyan clan.[28][29][30]

Because Hanpu arrived from Goryeo, some South Korean scholars have claimed that Hanpu hailed from Goryeo. According to Alexander Kim, this cannot be easily identified as him being Korean because many Balhae people lived in Goryeo at that time. Later when Aguda appealed to the Balhae people in the Liao dynasty for support by emphasizing their common origin, he only mentioned those who descended from the "seven Wuji tribes", which the Goguryeo people were not a part of. It seems by that point, the Jurchens saw only the Mohe tribes as a related people.[28] Some western scholars consider the origin of Hanpu to be legendary in nature. Herbert Franke described the narrative provided in the History of Jin as an "ancestral legend" with a historical basis in that the Wanyan clan had absorbed immigrants from Goryeo and Balhae during the 10th century.[29] Frederick W. Mote described it as a "tribal legend" that may have born the tribe's memories. The two brothers remaining in Goryeo and Balhae may represent ancestral ties to those two peoples while Hanpu's marriage may represent the tribe's transformation from a matrilineal to patrilineal society.[30]

أصل التشينگ

The Qing dynasty emperor of the Aisin Gioro clan, Hongtaiji claimed that their progenitor, Bukūri Yongšon[31] (布庫里雍順), was conceived from a virgin birth. According to the legend, three heavenly maidens, namely Enggulen (恩古倫), Jenggulen (正古倫) and Fekulen (佛庫倫), were bathing at a lake called Bulhūri Omo near the Changbai Mountains. A magpie dropped a piece of red fruit near Fekulen, who ate it. She then became pregnant with Bukūri Yongšon. However, another older version of the story by the Hurha (Hurka) tribe member Muksike recorded in 1635 contradicts Hongtaiji's version on location, claiming that it was in Heilongjiang province close to the Amur river where Bulhuri lake was located where the "heavenly maidens" took their bath. This was recorded in the Jiu Manzhou Dang and is much shorter and simpler in addition to being older. This is believed to be the original version and Hongtaiji changed it to the Changbai mountains. It shows that the Aisin Gioro clan originated in the Amur area and the Heje (Hezhen) and other Amur valley Jurchen tribes had an oral version of the same tale. It also fits with Jurchen history since some ancestors of the Manchus originated north before the 14th-15th centuries in the Amur and only later moved south.[32]

Liao vassals

By the 11th century, the Jurchens had become vassals of the Khitan rulers of the Liao dynasty. The Jurchens in the Yalu River region had been tributaries of Goryeo since the reign of Wang Geon, who called upon them during the wars of the Later Three Kingdoms period, but the Jurchens opportunistically switched allegiance between Liao and Goryeo multiple times. They offered tribute to both courts out of political necessity and the desire for material benefits.[33]

In 1019, Jurchen pirates raided Japan for slaves. The Jurchen pirates slaughtered Japanese men while seizing Japanese women as prisoners. Fujiwara Notada, the Japanese governor was killed.[34] In total, 1,280 Japanese were taken prisoner, 374 Japanese were killed and 380 Japanese owned livestock were killed for food.[35][36] Only 259 or 270 were returned by Koreans from the eight ships.[37][38][39][40] The woman Uchikura no Ishime's report was copied down.[41]

One of the causes of the Jurchen rebellion and the fall of the Liao was the custom of raping married Jurchen women and Jurchen girls by Khitan envoys, which caused resentment from the Jurchens.[42] The custom of having sex with unmarried girls by Khitan was itself not a problem, since the practice of guest prostitution - giving female companions, food and shelter to guests - was common among Jurchens. Unmarried daughters of Jurchen families of lower and middle classes in Jurchen villages were provided to Khitan messengers for sex, as recorded by Hong Hao.[43] Song envoys among the Jin were similarly entertained by singing girls in Guide, Henan.[44] There is no evidence that guest prostitution of unmarried Jurchen girls to Khitan men was resented by the Jurchens. It was only when the Khitans forced aristocratic Jurchen families to give up their beautiful wives as guest prostitutes to Khitan messengers that the Jurchens became resentful. This suggests that in Jurchen upper classes, only a husband had the right to his married wife while among lower class Jurchens, the virginity of unmarried girls and sex with Khitan men did not impede their ability to marry later.[45] The Jurchens and their Manchu descendants had Khitan linguistic and grammatical elements in their personal names like suffixes.[46] Many Khitan names had a "ju" suffix.[47]

حرب گوريو-جورتشن

The Jurchens in the Yalu River region were tributaries of Goryeo since the reign of Taejo of Goryeo (r. 918-943), who called upon them during the wars of the Later Three Kingdoms period. Taejo relied heavily on a large Jurchen cavalry force to defeat Later Baekje. The Jurchens switched allegiances between Liao and Goryeo multiple times depending on which they deemed the most appropriate. The Liao and Goryeo competed to gain the allegiance of Jurchen settlers who effectively controlled much of the border area beyond Goryeo and Liao fortifications.[48] These Jurchens offered tribute but expected to be rewarded richly by the Goryeo court in return. However the Jurchens who offered tribute were often the same ones who raided Goryeo's borders. In one instance, the Goryeo court discovered that a Jurchen leader who had brought tribute had been behind the recent raids on their territory. The frontier was largely outside of direct control and lavish gifts were doled out as a means of controlling the Jurchens. Sometimes Jurchens submitted to Goryeo and were given citizenship.[49] Goryeo inhabitants were forbidden from trading with Jurchens.[50]

The tributary relations between Jurchens and Goryeo began to change under the reign of Jurchen leader Wuyashu (r. 1103–1113) of the Wanyan clan. The Wanyan clan was intimately aware of the Jurchens who had submitted to Goryeo and used their power to break the clans' allegiance to Goryeo, unifying the Jurchens. The resulting conflict between the two powers led to Goryeo's withdrawal from Jurchen territory and acknowledgment of Jurchen control over the contested region.[51][52][53]

As the geopolitical situation shifted, Goryeo unleashed a series of military campaigns in the early 12th century to regain control of its borderlands. Goryeo had already been in conflict with the Jurchens before. In 1080, Munjong of Goryeo led a force of 30,000 to conquer ten villages. However by the rise of the Wanyan clan, the quality of Goryeo's army had degraded and it mostly consisted of infantry. There were several clashes with the Jurchens, usually resulting in Jurchen victory with their mounted cavalrymen. In 1104, the Wanyan Jurchens reached Chongju while pursuing tribes resisting them. Goryeo sent Lim Gan to confront the Jurchens, but his untrained army was defeated, and the Jurchens took Chongju castle. Lim Gan was dismissed from office and reinstated, dying as a civil servant in 1112. The war effort was taken up by Yun Gwan, but the situation was unfavorable and he returned after making peace.[54][55]

Yun Gwan believed that the loss was due to their inferior cavalry and proposed to the king that an elite force known as the Byeolmuban (別武班; "Special Warfare Army") be created. it existed apart from the main army and was made up of cavalry, infantry, and a Hangmagun ("Subdue Demon Corps"). In December 1107, Yun Gwan and O Yŏnch’on set out with 170,000 soldiers to conquer the Jurchens. The army won against the Jurchens and built Nine Fortresses over a wide area on the frontier encompassing Jurchen tribal lands, and erected a monument to mark the boundary. However due to unceasing Jurchen attacks, diplomatic appeals, and court intrigue, the Nine Fortresses were handed back to the Jurchens. In 1108, Yun Gwan was removed from office and the Nine Fortresses were turned over to the Wanyan clan.[56][57][58] It is plausible that the Jurchens and Goryeo had some sort of implicit understanding where the Jurchens would cease their attacks while Goryeo took advantage of the conflict between the Jurchens and Khitans to gain territory. According to Breuker, Goryeo never really had control of the region occupied by the Nine Fortresses in the first place and maintaining hegemony would have meant a prolonged conflict with militarily superior Jurchen troops that would prove very costly. The Nine Fortresses were exchanged for Poju (Uiju), a region the Jurchens later contested when Goryeo hesitated to recognize them as their suzerain.[59]

Later, Wuyashu's younger brother Aguda founded the Jin dynasty (1115–1234). When the Jin was founded, the Jurchens called Goryeo their "parent country" or "father and mother" country. This was because it had traditionally been part of their system of tributary relations, its rhetoric, advanced culture, as well as the idea that it was "bastard offspring of Koryŏ".[60][61] The Jin also believed that they shared a common ancestry with the Balhae people in the Liao dynasty.[28] The Jin went on to conquer the Liao dynasty in 1125 and capture the Song capital of Kaifeng in 1127 (Jingkang incident). The Jin also put pressure on Goryeo and demanded that Goryeo become their subject. While many in Goryeo were against this, Yi Cha-gyöm was in power at the time and judged peaceful relations with the Jin to be beneficial to his own political power. He accepted the Jin demands and in 1126, the king of Goryeo declared himself a Jin vassal (tributary).[62][63][64] However the Goryeo king retained his position as "Son of Heaven" within Goryeo. By incorporating Jurchen history into that of Goryeo and emphasizing the Jin emperors as bastard offspring of Goryeo, and placing the Jin within the template of a "northern dynasty", the imposition of Jin suzerainty became more acceptable.[65]


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أسرة جين

المقالة الرئيسية: أسرة جين (1115–1234) and حروب الجن والسونگ
 
 
أوراسيا قبل فتوحات جنگيز خان، 1200

قبائل الجورشن في القرن الحادي عشر في شمال منشوريا انحدرت من Tungusic Mohe, or Malgal tribes who were subjects of the ethnic-Goguryeo state of Balhae. The Mohe enjoyed eating pork, practiced pig farming extensively, and were mainly sedentary,[66] and also used both pig and dog skins for coats. They were predominantly farmers and grew soybean, wheat, millet, and rice, in addition to engaging in hunting.[67] By the 11th century, the Jurchens had become vassals of the Khitans (see also Liao Dynasty).


الثقافة والمجتمع

 
السلحفاة الحجرية من قبر أحد زعماء الجورشن من القرن 12، ويقع في ما هو اليوم أوسوري‌يسك

اللغة

كتابة الجورچن المبكرة اخترعها في 1120 وان‌يان شي‌يين، بأمر من وان‌يان أگودا. It was based on the Khitan script that was inspired in turn by Chinese characters. The written Jurchen language died out soon after the fall of the Jin Dynasty, though its spoken form survived. Until the end of the 16th century, when Manchu became the new literary language, the Jurchens used a combination of Mongolian and Chinese. The pioneering work on studies of the Jurchen script was done by Wilhelm Grube at the end of the 19th century.

أسرة مينگ

 
A Jurchen man hunting from his horse, from a 15th-century ink and color painting on silk.
 
A late Ming era woodblock print of a Jurchen warrior.

Chinese chroniclers of the Ming Dynasty distinguished three groups of Jurchens: the Wild Jurchens (Chinese:野人女真) of northernmost Manchuria, the Haixi Jurchens (Chinese:海西女真) of modern Heilongjiang (Chinese:黑龍江) and the Jianzhou Jurchens of modern Jilin province. They led a pastoral-agrarian lifestyle, hunting, fishing, and engaging in limited agriculture. In 1388, the Hongwu Emperor dispatched a mission to establish contact with the tribes of Odoli, Huligai and T'owen, beginning the sinicisation of the Jurchen people.


“建州毛怜则渤海大氏遗孽，乐住种，善缉纺，饮食服用，皆如华人，自长白山迤南，可拊而治也。" "The (people of) Chien-chou and Mao-lin [YLSL always reads Mao-lien] are the descendants of the family Ta of Po-hai. They love to be sedentary and sow, and they are skilled in spinning and weaving. As for food, clothing and utensils, they are the same as (those used by) the Chinese. (Those living) south of the Ch'ang-pai mountain are apt to be soothed and governed."

据魏焕《皇明九边考》卷二《辽东镇边夷考》[68] Translation from Sino-J̌ürčed relations during the Yung-Lo period, 1403-1424 by Henry Serruys[69]


الانتقال من الجورچن إلى المانشو

المقالة الرئيسية: الهوية العرقية في الرايات الثمانية

في فترة ثلاثين عاماً من 1586، قام نورحاجي، زعيم جورچن جيان‌ژو، بتوحيد قبائل الجورچن، التي تسمت لاحقاً بإسم مانشو في 1635 من قِبل ابنه هونگ تاي‌جي. فقد خلق كياناً متيناً من الهيئات القبلية ومتعددة الأعراق، والتي كانت بمثابة أساس لدولة المانشو ولاحقاً لفتح الصين على يد أسرة چينگ.

خلق جماعة المانشو العرقية من شعب الجورچن يُربط بتشكيل الرايات الثمانية على يد هونگ تاي‌جي.

سلالة محتملة من الجورچن

انظر أيضاً


ملاحظات

  1. ^ The Japanese government and Franke give the modern Mandarin pronunciation Zhulizhen.[8]
  2. ^ First attested in a late 15th-century glossary for the Ming Bureau of Translators.[17]

الهامش

  1. ^ Grand Dictionnaire Ricci de la Langue Chinoise, Vol. IV', Paris: Institut Ricci, 2001, p. 697 . (in فرنسية) & (in صينية)
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  3. ^ أ ب Hoong Teik Toh 2005, p. 28
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  6. ^ أ ب Roth Li 2002, pp. 11–13.
  7. ^ Roth Li 2002, p. 27.
  8. ^ أ ب ت ث خطأ: الوظيفة "harvard_core" غير موجودة..
  9. ^ أ ب Aisin Gioro & Jin 2007, p. 12.
  10. ^ أ ب ت خطأ: الوظيفة "harvard_core" غير موجودة..
  11. ^ أ ب خطأ: الوظيفة "harvard_core" غير موجودة..
  12. ^ Baxter-Sagart.
  13. ^ 《汲冢周书》.
  14. ^ أ ب ت ث ج Janhunen 2004, pp. 67 ff.
  15. ^ Vajda 2000.
  16. ^ Stolberg 2015.
  17. ^ أ ب ت ث Kane 1997, p. 232.
  18. ^ Elliott 2001, p. 51.
  19. ^ Rockhill 1967, p. 153.
  20. ^ Crossley 1997, p. 46.
  21. ^ Elliott 2001, p. 47–48.
  22. ^ Huang 1990, pp. 239–282.
  23. ^ Elliott 2001, p. 47.
  24. ^ Elliott 2001, p. 48.
  25. ^ Gorelova 2002, pp. 13–14.
  26. ^ Crossley 1997, p. 17.
  27. ^ Franke 1994, p. 219-220.
  28. ^ أ ب ت Kim 2011b, p. 173.
  29. ^ أ ب Franke 1990, p. 414-415.
  30. ^ أ ب Mote 1999, p. 212-213.
  31. ^ Pamela Kyle Crossley (15 February 2000). A Translucent Mirror: History and Identity in Qing Imperial Ideology. University of California Press. pp. 198–. ISBN 978-0-520-92884-8.
  32. ^ Huang 1990, p. 245.
  33. ^ Breuker 2010, pp. 220–221.
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  36. ^ Kang, Jae-eun (2006). "5: Goryeo, the Land of Buddhism". The Land of Scholars: Two Thousand Years of Korean Confucianism. Translated by Lee, Suzanne. Homa & Sekey Books. p. 75. ISBN 9781931907309.
  37. ^ Shively, Donald H.; McCullough, William H., eds. (1988). The Cambridge History of Japan. Volume 2: Heian Japan (illustrated, reprint ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 95. ISBN 0521223539.
  38. ^ Adolphson, Mikael S.; Kamens, Edward; Matsumoto, Stacie, eds. (2007). Heian Japan, Centers and Peripheries. University of Hawai'i Press. p. 376. ISBN 9780824830137.
  39. ^ Kodansha Encyclopedia of Japan, Volume 2. Kodansha. 1983. p. 79. ISBN 0870116223.
  40. ^ Embree, Ainslie Thomas, ed. (1988). Encyclopedia of Asian History, Volume 1 (2nd, illustrated ed.). Scribner. p. 371. ISBN 0684188988.
  41. ^ 朝鮮學報, Issues 198-201. 朝鮮學會. 2006.
  42. ^ Tillman, Hoyt Cleveland (1995). Tillman, Hoyt Cleveland; West, Stephen H. (eds.). China Under Jurchen Rule: Essays on Chin Intellectual and Cultural History (illustrated ed.). SUNY Press. p. 27. ISBN 0791422739.
  43. ^ Lanciotti 1980, p. 32
  44. ^ Franke, Herbert (1983). "FIVE Sung Embassies: Some General Observations". In Rossabi, Moris (ed.). China Among Equals: The Middle Kingdom and Its Neighbors, 10th-14th Centuries (illustrated ed.). University of California Press. ISBN 0520043839.
  45. ^ Lanciotti 1980, p. 33
  46. ^ Hoong Teik Toh 2005, pp. 34, 35, 36.
  47. ^ Hoong Teik Toh 2005, p. 31.
  48. ^ Breuker 2010, pp. 220–221. "The Jurchen settlements in the Amnok River region had been tributaries of Koryŏ since the establishment of the dynasty, when T'aejo Wang Kŏn heavily relied on a large segment of Jurchen cavalry to defeat the armies of Later Paekche. The position and status of these Jurchen is hard to determine using the framework of the Koryŏ and Liao states as reference, since the Jurchen leaders generally took care to steer a middle course between Koryŏ and Liao, changing sides or absconding whenever that was deemed the best course. As mentioned above, Koryŏ and Liao competed quite fiercely to obtain the allegiance of the Jurchen settlers who in the absence of large armies effectively controlled much of the frontier area outside the Koryŏ and Liao fortifications. These Jurchen communities were expert in handling the tension between Liao and Koryŏ, playing out divide-and-rule policies backed up by threats of border violence. It seems that the relationship between the semi-nomadic Jurchen and their peninsular neighbours bore much resemblance to the relationship between Chinese states and their nomad neighbours, as described by Thomas Barfield."
  49. ^ Breuker 2010, p. 221-222.
  50. ^ Breuker 2010, p. 222.
  51. ^ Breuker 2010, p. 223.
  52. ^ Tillman, Hoyt Cleveland; West, Stephen H (1995). China Under Jurchen Rule. SUNY Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-2273-1. Retrieved 18 March 2015.
  53. ^ Twitchett, Fairbank & Franke 1994, p. 221.
  54. ^ 여진정벌. Encyclopedia of Korean Culture.
  55. ^ Lee 1984, p. 127.
  56. ^ Breuker 2010, p. 224.
  57. ^ Brown 2014, p. 793.
  58. ^ Lee 1984, p. 127-128.
  59. ^ Breuker 2010, p. 225-226.
  60. ^ Breuker 2010, p. 137.
  61. ^ Yi, Ki-baek (1984). A New History of Korea (in الإنجليزية). Harvard University Press. p. 126. ISBN 978-0-674-61576-2. Retrieved 30 July 2016.
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  64. ^ Ebrey & Walthall 2014, [1], p. 171, في كتب گوگل: "In the case of the Jurchen Jin, the [Goryeo] court decided to transfer its tributary relationship from the Liao to Jin before serious violence broke out." Also p.172: "Koryŏ enrolled as a Jin tributary".
  65. ^ Breuker 2010, p. 229-230.
  66. ^ Gorelova 2002, pp. 13-4.
  67. ^ Gorelova 2002, p. 14.
  68. ^ 萧国亮 (2007-01-24). "明代汉族与女真族的马市贸易". 艺术中国(ARTX.cn). p. 1. Retrieved 25 July 2014.
  69. ^ Serruys 1955, p. 22.

المصادر

  هذه المقالة تتضمن نصاً من The Manchus: or The reigning dynasty of China; their rise and progress، بقلم John Ross، وهي مطبوعة من سنة 1880 وهي الآن مشاع عام في الولايات المتحدة.


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وصلات خارجية

قالب:Tungusic peoples قالب:Historical Non-Chinese peoples in China

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