المعرفة

سواحيلي (لغة)

(تم التحويل من السواحيلية)

سواحيلي هي لغة سواحل إفريقيا الشرقية، وهي لغة كينيا وتانزانيا الرسمية. إنها لغة الأم لخمس مليون نسمة، وخمسون مليون تعلموها. وهي من لغات البانتو، لكن أثرت عليها العربية كثيرا. تكتب بالحروف اللاتينية الآن، لكن كانت تكتب بالحروف العربية من قبل.

Swahili
Ajami: كِيْسَوَاحِيْلِيْ
KiSwahili
النطققالب:IPA-sw
موطنهاmainly in Tanzania and Kenya, Comoros, Mayotte, Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, the eastern part of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, the Bajuni Islands (part of Somalia), northern Mozambique (mostly Mwani),[1] Zambia, Malawi, and Madagascar.
العرقSwahili
الناطقون الأصليون
Estimates range from 2 million (2003)[2] to 18 million (2012)e21
L2 speakers: 90 million (1991–2015)[3]
الصيغة المبكرة
Proto-Swahili[4]
الوضع الرسمي
لغة رسمية في
4 countries
Organizations
لغة أقلية
معترف بها في
ينظمها
أكواد اللغات
ISO 639-2swa
ISO 639-2swa
ISO 639-3swa – inclusive code
Individual codes:
swc – Congo Swahili
swh – Coastal Swahili
ymk – Makwe (?)
wmw – Mwani (?)
Glottologswah1254
  • G.42–43;
  • G.40.A–H (pidgins & creoles)
[6]
Linguasphere99-AUS-m
Maeneo penye wasemaji wa Kiswahili.png
Geographic-administrative extent of Swahili. Dark: native range (the Swahili coast). Medium green: official use. Light green: no official or national language status.
This article contains IPA phonetic symbols. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA.
الشخصMswahili
الشعبWaswahili
اللغةKiswahili

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History

 
Swahili in Arabic script—memorial plate at the Askari Monument, Dar es Salaam (1927)


Etymology

The origin of the word Swahili is its phonetic equivalent in Arabic:

سَاحِل →   سَوَاحِل →   سَوَاحِلِىّ
sāħil sawāħil sawāħilï
"coast" "coasts", (broken plural) "of coasts"

Origin

The core of the Swahili language originates in Bantu languages of the coast of East Africa. Much of Swahili's Bantu vocabulary has cognates in the Pokomo, Taita, and Mijikenda languages[7] and, to a lesser extent, other East African Bantu languages. While opinions vary on the specifics, it has been historically purported that about 20% of the Swahili vocabulary is derived from loan words, the vast majority Arabic, but also other contributing languages, including Persian, Hindustani, Portuguese, and Malay.[8]

Source languages for loanwords in Swahili[9]
Source languages Percentage
Arabic (mainly Omani Arabic) 35%
English 4.6%
Portuguese 0.9–1.0%
Hindi 0.7–3.9%
Persian 0.4–3.4%
Malagasy 0.2–0.4%

Omani Arabic is the source of most Arabic loanwords in Swahili.[10][11] In the text "Early Swahili History Reconsidered", however, Thomas Spear noted that Swahili retains a large amount of grammar, vocabulary, and sounds inherited from the Sabaki language. In fact, while taking account of daily vocabulary, using lists of one hundred words, 72–91% were inherited from the Sabaki language (which is reported as a parent language) whereas 4–17% were loan words from other African languages. Only 2–8% were from non-African languages, and Arabic loan words constituted a fraction of that.[12] According to other sources, around 35% of the Swahili vocabulary comes from Arabic.[13] What also remained unconsidered was that a good number of the borrowed terms had native equivalents. The preferred use of Arabic loan words is prevalent along the coast, where natives, in a cultural show of proximity to, or descent from Arab culture, would rather use loan words, whereas the natives in the interior tend to use the native equivalents. It was originally written in Arabic script.[14]

The earliest known documents written in Swahili are letters written in Kilwa, Tanzania, in 1711 in the Arabic script that were sent to the Portuguese of Mozambique and their local allies. The original letters are preserved in the Historical Archives of Goa, India.[15][16]

Colonial period

 
Although originally written with the Arabic script, Swahili is now written in a Latin alphabet introduced by Christian missionaries and colonial administrators. The text shown here is the Catholic version of the Lord's Prayer.[17]

Various colonial powers that ruled on the coast of East Africa played a role in the growth and spread of Swahili. With the arrival of the Arabs in East Africa, they used Swahili as a language of trade as well as for teaching Islam to the local Bantu peoples. This resulted in Swahili first being written in the Arabic alphabet. The later contact with the Portuguese resulted in the increase of vocabulary of the Swahili language. The language was formalised in an institutional level when the Germans took over after the Berlin conference. After seeing there was already a widespread language, the Germans formalised it as the official language to be used in schools. Thus schools in Swahili are called Shule (from German Schule) in government, trade and the court system. With the Germans controlling the major Swahili-speaking region in East Africa, they changed the alphabet system from Arabic to Latin. After the First World War, Britain took over German East Africa, where they found Swahili rooted in most areas, not just the coastal regions. The British decided to formalise it as the language to be used across the East African region (although in British East Africa [Kenya and Uganda] most areas used English and various Nilotic and other Bantu languages while Swahili was mostly restricted to the coast). In June 1928, an inter-territorial conference attended by representatives of Kenya, Tanganyika, Uganda, and Zanzibar took place in Mombasa. The Zanzibar dialect was chosen as standard Swahili for those areas,[18] and the standard orthography for Swahili was adopted.[19]

Current status

Swahili has become a second language spoken by tens of millions in four African Great Lakes countries (Kenya, DRC, Uganda, and Tanzania), where it is an official or national language, while being the first language for many people in Tanzania especially in the coastal regions of Tanga, Pwani, Dar es Salaam, Mtwara and Lindi. In the inner regions of Tanzania, Swahili is spoken with an accent influenced by local languages and dialects, and as a first language for most people born in the cities, whilst being spoken as a second language in rural areas. Swahili and closely related languages are spoken by relatively small numbers of people in Burundi, Comoros, Malawi, Mozambique, Zambia and Rwanda.[20] The language was still understood in the southern ports of the Red Sea in the 20th century.[21][22] Swahili speakers may number 150 to 200 million in total.[23] The East African Community created an institution called the East African Kiswahili Commission (EACK) which began operations in 2015. The institution currently serves as the leading body for promoting the language in the East African region, as well as for coordinating its development and usage for regional integration and sustainable development.[24]

Swahili is among the first languages in Africa for which language technology applications have been developed. Arvi Hurskainen is one of the early developers. The applications include a spelling checker,[25] part-of-speech tagging,[26] a language learning software,[26] an analysed Swahili text corpus of 25 million words,[27] an electronic dictionary,[26] and machine translation[26] between Swahili and English. The development of language technology also strengthens the position of Swahili as a modern medium of communication.[28] Furthermore, Swahili Wikipedia is among the few Wikipedias in African language featuring a fairly good amount of contributors and articles.

Tanzania

The widespread use of Swahili as a national language in Tanzania came after Tanganyika gained independence in 1961 and the government decided that it would be used as a language to unify the new nation. This saw the use of Swahili in all levels of government, trade, art as well as schools in which primary school children are taught in Swahili, before switching to English (medium of instruction)[29] in Secondary schools (although Swahili is still taught as an independent subject). After Tanganyika and Zanzibar unification in 1964, Taasisi ya Uchunguzi wa Kiswahili (TUKI, Institute of Swahili Research) was created from the Interterritorial Language Committee. In 1970 TUKI was merged with the University of Dar es salaam, while Baraza la Kiswahili la Taifa (BAKITA) was formed. BAKITA is an organisation dedicated to the development and advocacy of Swahili as a means of national integration in Tanzania. Key activities mandated for the organization include creating a healthy atmosphere for the development of Swahili, encouraging use of the language in government and business functions, coordinating activities of other organizations involved with Swahili, standardizing the language. BAKITA vision are: 1.To efficiently manage and coordinate the development and use of Kiswahili in Tanzania 2.To participate fully and effectively in promoting Swahili in East Africa, Africa and the entire world over.[30] Although other bodies and agencies can propose new vocabularies, BAKITA is the only organisation that can approve its usage in the Swahili language.


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Kenya

In Kenya, Kiswahili has been the national language since 1964 and is official since 2010.[31] Chama cha Kiswahili cha Taifa (CHAKITA) was established in 1998 to research and promote Kiswahili language in Kenya.[32] Kiswahili is a compulsory subject in all Kenyan primary and secondary schools.[33]

Uganda

Uganda adopted Kiswahili as the official language in 2022 and also made it compulsory across primary and secondary schools in the country.[34][35]

Somalia

The Swahili language is not widespread in Somalia and has no official status nationally or regionally.[36][37] It is rarely taught in the education system, the main foreign languages are Arabic and English.[37] Dialects of Swahili are spoken by some ethnic minorities on the Bajuni islands in the form of Kibajuni on the southern tip of the country and in the town of Brava in the form of Chimwiini, both contain a significant amount of Somali and Italian loanwords.[38][39] Standard Swahili is generally only spoken by Somali nationals who have resided in Kenya and subsequently returned to Somalia.[40][41] Lastly, a closely related language Mushunguli (also known as Zigula, Zigua, or Chizigua) is spoken by some of the Somali Bantu ethnic minority mostly living in the Jubba Valley.[37] It is classified as a Northeast Coast Bantu language as Swahili is and has some intelligibility with Swahili.[42]

Religious and political identity

Religion

Swahili played a major role in spreading both Christianity and Islam in East Africa. From their arrival in East Africa, Arabs brought Islam and set up madrasas, where they used Swahili to teach Islam to the natives. As the Arab presence grew, more and more natives were converted to Islam and were taught using the Swahili language.

From the arrival of Europeans in East Africa, Christianity was introduced in East Africa. While the Arabs were mostly based in the coastal areas, European missionaries went further inland spreading Christianity. But since the first missionary posts in East Africa were in the coastal areas, missionaries picked up Swahili and used it to spread Christianity since it had a lot of similarities with many of the other indigenous languages in the region.

Politics

During the struggle for Tanganyika independence, the Tanganyika African National Union used Swahili as language of mass organisation and political movement. This included publishing pamphlets and radio broadcasts to rally the people to fight for independence. After independence, Swahili was adopted as the national language of the nation. Till this day, Tanzanians carry a sense of pride when it comes to Swahili especially when it is used to unite over 120 tribes across Tanzania. Swahili was used to strengthen solidarity among the people and a sense of togetherness and for that Swahili remains a key identity of the Tanzanian people.

Phonology

Example of spoken Swahili

قالب:Self reference

Vowels

Standard Swahili has five vowel phonemes: /ɑ/, /ɛ/, /i/, /ɔ/, and /u/. According to Ellen Contini-Morava, vowels are never reduced, regardless of stress.[43] However, according to Edgar Polomé, these five phonemes can vary in pronunciation. Polomé claims that /ɛ/, /i/, /ɔ/, and /u/ are pronounced as such only in stressed syllables. In unstressed syllables, as well as before a prenasalized consonant, they are pronounced as [e], [ɪ], [o], and [ʊ]. E is also commonly pronounced as mid-position after w. Polomé claims that /ɑ/ is pronounced as such only after w and is pronounced as [a] in other situations, especially after /j/ (y). A can be pronounced as [ə] in word-final position.[44] Swahili vowels can be long; these are written as two vowels (example: kondoo, meaning "sheep"). This is due to a historical process in which the L became deleted between the second last and last vowel of a word ( e.g.kondoo "sheep" was originally pronounced kondolo, which survives in certain dialects). However, these long vowels are not considered to be phonemic. A similar process exists in Zulu.


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Consonants

Swahili consonant phonemes[43][45]
Labial Dental Alveolar Postalveolar
/ Palatal 		Velar Glottal
Nasal m ⟨m⟩ n ⟨n⟩ ɲ ⟨ny⟩ ŋ ⟨ng'⟩
Stop prenasalized mb̥ ⟨mb⟩ nd̥ ⟨nd⟩ nd̥ʒ̊ ⟨nj⟩ ŋɡ̊ ⟨ng⟩
implosive
/ voiced 		ɓ ~ b ⟨b⟩ ɗ ~ d ⟨d⟩ ʄ ~ dʒ ⟨j⟩ ɠ ~ ɡ ⟨g⟩
voiceless p ⟨p⟩ t ⟨t⟩ tʃ ⟨ch⟩ k ⟨k⟩
aspirated (pʰ ⟨p⟩) (tʰ ⟨t⟩) (tʃʰ ⟨ch⟩) (kʰ ⟨k⟩)
Fricative prenasalized mv̥ ⟨mv⟩ nz̥ ⟨nz⟩
voiced v ⟨v⟩ (ð ⟨dh⟩) z ⟨z⟩ (ɣ ⟨gh⟩)
voiceless f ⟨f⟩ (θ ⟨th⟩) s ⟨s⟩ ʃ ⟨sh⟩ (x ⟨kh⟩) h ⟨h⟩
Approximant l ⟨l⟩ j ⟨y⟩ w ⟨w⟩
Rhotic r ⟨r⟩

Some dialects of Swahili may also have the aspirated phonemes /pʰ tʰ tʃʰ kʰ bʱ dʱ dʒʱ ɡʱ/ though they are unmarked in Swahili's orthography.[46] Multiple studies favour classifying prenasalization as consonant clusters, not as separate phonemes. Historically, nasalization has been lost before voiceless consonants, and subsequently the voiced consonants have devoiced[بحاجة لمصدر], though they are still written mb, nd etc. The /r/ phoneme is realised as either a short trill قالب:IPA blink or more commonly as a single tap قالب:IPA blink by most speakers. [x] exists in free variation with h, and is only distinguished by some speakers.[44] In some Arabic loans (nouns, verbs, adjectives), emphasis or intensity is expressed by reproducing the original emphatic consonants /dˤ, sˤ, tˤ, zˤ/ and the uvular /q/, or lengthening a vowel, where aspiration would be used in inherited Bantu words.[46]

Orthography

 
Swahili in Arabic script on the clothes of a girl in German East Africa (ca. early 1900s)

Swahili is now written in the Latin alphabet. There are a few digraphs for native sounds, ch, sh, ng and ny; q and x are not used,[47] c is not used apart from the digraph ch, unassimilated English loans and, occasionally, as a substitute for k in advertisements. There are also several digraphs for Arabic sounds, which many speakers outside of ethnic Swahili areas have trouble differentiating.

The language used to be written in the Ajami script, which is an Arabic script. Unlike other adaptations of the Arabic script for other languages, relatively little accommodation was made for Swahili. There were also differences in orthographic conventions between cities and authors and over the centuries, some quite precise but others different enough to cause difficulties with intelligibility.

/e/ and /i/, and /o/ and /u/ were often conflated, but in some spellings, /e/ was distinguished from /i/ by rotating the kasra 90° and /o/ was distinguished from /u/ by writing the damma backwards.

Several Swahili consonants do not have equivalents in Arabic, and for them, often no special letters were created unlike other languages. Instead, the closest Arabic sound is substituted. Not only did that mean that one letter often stands for more than one sound, but also writers made different choices of which consonant to substitute. Below are some of the equivalents between Arabic Swahili and Roman Swahili:

Swahili in Arabic Script Swahili in Latin Alphabet
Final Medial Initial Isolated
ـا ا aa
ـب ـبـ بـ ب b p mb mp bw pw mbw mpw
ـت ـتـ تـ ت t nt
ـث ـثـ ثـ ث th?
ـج ـجـ جـ ج j nj ng ng' ny
ـح ـحـ حـ ح h
ـخ ـخـ خـ خ kh h
ـد د d nd
ـذ ذ dh?
ـر ر r d nd
ـز ز z nz
ـس ـسـ سـ س s
ـش ـشـ شـ ش sh ch
ـص ـصـ صـ ص s, sw
ـض ـضـ ضـ ض dhw
ـط ـطـ طـ ط t tw chw
ـظ ـظـ ظـ ظ z th dh dhw
ـع ـعـ عـ ع ?
ـغ ـغـ غـ غ gh g ng ng'
ـف ـفـ فـ ف f fy v vy mv p
ـق ـقـ قـ ق k g ng ch sh ny
ـك ـكـ كـ ك
ـل ـلـ لـ ل l
ـم ـمـ مـ م m
ـن ـنـ نـ ن n
ـه ـهـ هـ ه h
ـو و w
ـي ـيـ يـ ي y ny

That was the general situation, but conventions from Urdu were adopted by some authors so as to distinguish aspiration and /p/ from /b/: پھا /pʰaa/ 'gazelle', پا /paa/ 'roof'. Although it is not found in Standard Swahili today, there is a distinction between dental and alveolar consonants in some dialects, which is reflected in some orthographies, for example in كُٹَ -kuta 'to meet' vs. كُتَ -kut̠a 'to be satisfied'. A k with the dots of y, ـػـػـػـػ, was used for ch in some conventions; ky being historically and even contemporaneously a more accurate transcription than Roman ch. In Mombasa, it was common to use the Arabic emphatics for Cw, for example in صِصِ swiswi (standard sisi) 'we' and كِطَ kit̠wa (standard kichwa) 'head'.

Particles such as ya, na, si, kwa, ni are joined to the following noun, and possessives such as yangu and yako are joined to the preceding noun, but verbs are written as two words, with the subject and tense–aspect–mood morphemes separated from the object and root, as in aliyeniambia "he who told me".[48]

Swahili sayings

 
Loxodonta africana elephants frolic in Amboseli National Park, Kenya, 2012.

Two sayings with the same meaning of Where elephants fight, the grass is trampled:[49][50]

Wapiganapo

tembo

nyasi

huumia

Wapiganapo tembo nyasi huumia

Fighting elephants damage the grass.

Ndovu

wawili

wakisongana,

ziumiazo

ni

nyika.

Ndovu wawili wakisongana, ziumiazo ni nyika.

Where two elephants argue, the grassland is damaged.

Mwacha

mila

ni

mtumwa.

Mwacha mila ni mtumwa.

The person who abandons his culture, is a servant.

See also

References

  1. ^ Thomas J. Hinnebusch, 1992, "Swahili", International Encyclopedia of Linguistics, Oxford, pp. 99–106
    David Dalby, 1999/2000, The Linguasphere Register of the World's Languages and Speech Communities, Linguasphere Press, Volume Two, pp. 733–735
    Benji Wald, 1994, "Sub-Saharan Africa", Atlas of the World's Languages, Routledge, pp. 289–346, maps 80, 81, 85
  2. ^ Hinnebusch, Thomas J. (2003). "Swahili". In William J. Frawley (ed.). International Encyclopedia of Linguistics (2 ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195139778. Archived from the original on 17 August 2016. Retrieved 20 July 2016. First-language (L1) speakers of Swahili, who probably number no more than twenty million
  3. ^ خطأ استشهاد: وسم <ref> غير صحيح؛ لا نص تم توفيره للمراجع المسماة e21
  4. ^ Nurse, Derek; Spear, Thomas (10 June 2017). The Swahili: Reconstructing the History and Language of an African Society, 800-1500. ISBN 9781512821666.
  5. ^ "Sadc Adopts Kiswahili as 4th Working Language". European Commission. 30 August 2019. Archived from the original on 18 October 2020. Retrieved 21 February 2021.
  6. ^ Jouni Filip Maho, 2009. New Updated Guthrie List Online
  7. ^ Polomé, Edgar (1967). Swahili Language Handbook (PDF). Centre for Applied Linguistics. p. 28. Archived (PDF) from the original on 27 November 2020. Retrieved 12 September 2019.
  8. ^ Ali, Hassan O. "A Brief History of the Swahili Language". Swahili Language & Culture. Archived from the original on 12 May 2017. Retrieved 30 September 2017.
  9. ^ "1. Loanwords in Swahili", T. Schadeberg, in Tadmor, Uri. Loanwords in the World's Languages: A Comparative Handbook. Germany: De Gruyter, 2009.
  10. ^ Baldi, Sergio, Arabic Loans in East African Languages through Swahili: A Survey Archived 30 مارس 2021 at the Wayback Machine, Folia Orientalia, 2012, PAS Journals Repository
  11. ^ Nurse and Hinnebusch, 1993, p. 321
  12. ^ Spear, Thomas (2000). "Early Swahili History Reconsidered". The International Journal of African Historical Studies. 33 (2): 257–290. doi:10.2307/220649. JSTOR 220649.
  13. ^ "A Guide to Swahili - 10 facts about the Swahili language". Archived from the original on 5 September 2017. Retrieved 30 September 2017.
  14. ^ Juma, Abdurahman. "Swahili history". glcom.com. Archived from the original on 12 May 2017. Retrieved 30 September 2017.
  15. ^ Alpers, E. A. (1975). Ivory and Slaves in East Central Africa. London. pp. 98–99.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  16. ^ Vernet, T. (2002). "Les cités-Etats swahili et la puissance omanaise (1650–1720)". Journal des Africanistes. 72 (2): 102–05. doi:10.3406/jafr.2002.1308.
  17. ^ "Baba yetu". Wikisource. Archived from the original on 8 October 2011. Retrieved 15 November 2015.
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  20. ^ Nurse & Thomas Spear (1985) The Swahili
  21. ^ Kharusi, N. S. (2012). "The Ethnic Label Zinjibari: Politics and Language Choice Implications Among Swahili Speakers in Oman". Ethnicities (in الإنجليزية). 12 (3): 335–353. doi:10.1177/1468796811432681. S2CID 145808915.
  22. ^ Adriaan Hendrik Johan Prins (1961) The Swahili-speaking Peoples of Zanzibar and the East African Coast. (Ethnologue)
  23. ^ (2005 World Bank Data).
  24. ^ Press Release on EAKC
  25. ^ "Zana za Uhakiki za Microsoft Office 2016 - Kiingereza". Microsoft Download Center. Archived from the original on 6 March 2019. Retrieved 23 October 2019.
  26. ^ أ ب ت ث "Salama". 77.240.23.241. Retrieved 23 October 2019.
  27. ^ "Helsinki Corpus of Swahili 2.0 (HCS 2.0) – META-SHARE". metashare.csc.fi. Archived from the original on 23 October 2019. Retrieved 23 October 2019.
  28. ^ Hurskainen, Arvi. 2018. Sustainable language technology for African languages. In Agwuele, Augustine and Bodomo, Adams (eds), The Routledge Handbook of African Linguistics, 359–375. London: Routledge Publishers. ISBN 978-1-138-22829-0
  29. ^ "The Failure of Language Policy in Tanzanian Schools". Archived from the original on 16 July 2020. Retrieved 13 October 2020.
  30. ^ "Vision and Mission of The National Kiswahili Council". The United Republic of Tanzania National Kiswahili Council (in الإنجليزية). Archived from the original on 22 October 2020. Retrieved 13 October 2020.
  31. ^ "Uganda finally adopts Kiswahili as official language". The East African. Retrieved 13 July 2022.
  32. ^ "CHAKITA:Chama Cha Kiswahili Cha Taifa". chakita.org. Retrieved 21 June 2022.
  33. ^ "CS Matiangi: Kiswahili to remain compulsory in new curriculum". Kenya Broadcasting Corporation(KBC). Retrieved 21 June 2022.
  34. ^ "Kiswahili language compulsory in primary, secondary schools – Cabinet". The Monitor. Retrieved 13 July 2022.
  35. ^ "Uganda finally adopts Kiswahili as official language". The East African. Retrieved 13 July 2022.
  36. ^ "The Federal Republic of Somalia Provisional Constitution of 2012".
  37. ^ أ ب ت خطأ استشهاد: وسم <ref> غير صحيح؛ لا نص تم توفيره للمراجع المسماة Ethnolsom
  38. ^ Henderson, Brent. "Chimwiini: Endangered Status and Syntactic Distinctiveness" (PDF). {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  39. ^ Nurse, Derek. "When northern Swahili met southern Somali" (PDF). Contemporary African Linguistics.
  40. ^ Scharrer, Tabea (2018-06-16). ""Ambiguous citizens": Kenyan Somalis and the question of belonging". Journal of Eastern African Studies. 12 (3): 494–513. doi:10.1080/17531055.2018.1483864. ISSN 1753-1055. S2CID 149655820.
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  42. ^ "Glottolog 4.5 - Northeast Coastal Bantu". glottolog.org. Retrieved 2022-01-25.
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