لوبي إسرائيل في الولايات المتحدة

The AIPAC headquarters on Mount Vernon Triangle in Washington, D.C.

لوبي إسرائيل Israel lobby (يسمى أحياناً اللوبي الصهيوني Zionist lobby)، هو تحالف متنوع يضم الأفراد و/أو الجماعات الساعية للتأثير على السياسة الخارجية للولايات المتحدة دعماً لإسرائيل أو لسياسة الحكومة الإسرائيلية. يتألف اللوبي من أفراد وجماعات علمانية، مسيحية وأمريكية-يهودية. من أكبر جماعات اللوبي الموالية لإسرائيل المسيحيون المتحدون من أجل إسرائيل؛ لجنة الشؤون العامة الأمريكية الإسرائيلية وهي منظمة رائدة داخل اللوبي، تتحدث نيابة عن تحالف الجماعات اليهودية الأمريكية.

 التاريخ

الصهيوني المسيحي وليام يوجين بلاكستون.

جورج بوش (باحث توراتي) وrestorationist مسيحي.

لويس برانديس قاضي المحكمة العليا الأمريكية.

A Christian belief in the return of the Jews to the Holy Land has roots in the United States, which pre-date both the establishment of the Zionist movement and the establishment of Israel. Lobbying by these groups, to influence the U.S. government in ways similar to Zionist ideology, dates back to at least the 19th century.

In 1844 George Bush, a Christian Zionist and Professor of Hebrew at New York University who was related to the Bush political family, published a book entitled The Valley of Vision; or, The Dry Bones of Israel Revived. In it he denounced "the thralldom and oppression which has so long ground them (the Jews) to the dust," and called for "elevating" the Jews "to a rank of honorable repute among the nations of the earth" by restoring the Jews to the land of Israel where the bulk would be converted to Christianity. This, according to Bush, would benefit not only the Jews, but all of mankind, forming a "link of communication" between humanity and God. "It will blaze in notoriety ...". "It will flash a splendid demonstration upon all kindreds and tongues of the truth." The book sold about a million copies in the antebellum period. The Blackstone Memorial of 1891 was also a significant Christian Restorationist petition effort, led by William Eugene Blackstone, to persuade Benjamin Harrison, then the president of the United States, to pressure the Ottoman Sultan for the delivery of Palestine to the Jews.

 20th century

Beginning in 1914, the involvement of Louis Brandeis and his brand of American Zionism made Jewish Zionism a force on the American scene for the first time; under his leadership it had increased ten-fold to about 200,000. As chair of the American Provisional Executive Committee for General Zionist Affairs, Brandeis raised millions of dollars to relieve Jewish suffering in war-torn Europe, and from that time "became the financial center for the world Zionist movement."

The British Balfour Declaration additionally advanced the Zionist movement and gave it official legitimacy. The U.S. Congress passed the first joint resolution stating its support for a homeland in Palestine for the Jewish people on September 21, 1922. The same day, the Mandate of Palestine was approved by the Council of the League of Nations.

Zionist lobbying in the United States aided the creation of the State of Israel in 1947–48. The preparation of and voting for the United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine which preceded the Israeli Declaration of Independence, was met with an outpouring of Jewish American support and advocacy in Washington, D.C. U.S. President Harry S. Truman later noted, "The facts were that not only were there pressure movements around the United Nations unlike anything that had been seen there before, but that the White House, too, was subjected to a constant barrage. I do not think I ever had as much pressure and propaganda aimed at the White House as I had in this instance. The persistence of a few of the extreme Zionist leaders—actuated by political motives and engaging in political threats—disturbed and annoyed me."

In the 1950s, the American Zionist Committee for Public Affairs was created by Isaiah L. Kenen. During the presidency of Dwight D. Eisenhower, Israel's concerns were not at the forefront. Other problems in the Middle East and the Soviet Union were paramount, and Israel's American supporters were not as active as they had been. AZCPA formed a pro-Israel lobbying committee to counter rumors that the Eisenhower administration was going to investigate the American Zionist Council. AZCPA's executive committee decided to change their name from American Zionist Committee for Public Affairs to American Israel Public Affairs Committee.

The relationship between Israel and the U.S. government began with strong popular support for Israel and governmental reservations about the wisdom of creating a Jewish state; formal inter-government relations remained chilly until 1967.

Prior to 1967, the federal government of the United States provided some aid but was generally neutral towards Israel. However, in each year between 1976 and 2004, Israel received the most direct foreign assistance from the U.S. of any nation, approximately 0.1% of the $3 trillion U.S. annual budget.

 التنظيم

جون هاگي، مؤسس ورئيس المسيحيون المتحدون من أجل إسرائيل، على المنصة أثناء المؤتمر الوطني للمجموعة، 2007.

يتألف اللوبي الموالي لإسرائيل من مكونات رسمية وغير رسمية.

 اللوبي غير الرسمي

Support for Israel is strong among American Christians of many denominations. Informal Christian support for Israel includes a broad range varieties support for Israel ranging from the programming and news coverage on the Christian Broadcasting Network and the Christian Television Network to the more informal support of the annual Day of Prayer for the Peace of Jerusalem.

Informal lobbying also includes the activities of Jewish groups. Some scholars view Jewish lobbying on behalf of Israel as one of many examples of a US ethnic group lobbying on behalf of an ethnic homeland, which has met with a degree of success largely because Israel is strongly supported by a far larger and more influential Christian movement that shares its goals. In a 2006 article in the London Review of Books, Professors John Mearsheimer and Stephen Walt wrote:

In its basic operations, the Israel Lobby is no different from the farm lobby, steel or textile workers' unions, or other ethnic lobbies. There is nothing improper about American Jews and their Christian allies attempting to sway US policy: the Lobby's activities are not a conspiracy of the sort depicted in tracts like the Protocols of the Elders of Zion. For the most part, the individuals and groups that comprise it are only doing what other special interest groups do, but doing it very much better. By contrast, pro-Arab interest groups, in so far as they exist at all, are weak, which makes the Israel Lobby's task even easier.

The author Mitchell Bard defines the Jewish "informal lobby" as the indirect means through which "Jewish voting behavior and American public opinion" influence "U.S. Middle East policy". Bard described the motivation underlying the informal lobby as follows:

American Jews recognize the importance of support for Israel because of the dire consequences that could follow from the alternative. Despite the fact that Israel is often referred to now as the fourth most powerful country in the world, the perceived threat to Israel is not military defeat, it is annihilation. At the same time, American Jews are frightened of what might happen in the United States if they do not have political power.

 اللوبي الرسمي

شعار جى ستريت.

• المسيحيون المتحدون من أجل إسرائيل، أكبر جماعات "اللوبي" الموالية لإسرائيل في الولايات المتحدة.
• لجنة الشؤون العامة الأمريكية الإسرائيلية والتي تضغط مباشرة على الكونگرس الأمريكي.
• مؤتمر رؤساء المنظمات اليهودية الأمريكية الكبرى والذي يمثل "الاتصال الرئيسي بين الجالية اليهودية والسلطة التنفيذية" بالحكومة الأمريكية.

 وسائل التأثير

كما هو الحال مع جميع مجموعات المصالح، فالمهم هو ما يطالبون به ومتى يفعلون ذلك.

—ستفن والت

 الحرم الجامعي

ممثولون موالون لإسرائيل في جامعة بريگهام ينگ في لقاء مع الحاكم گراي ر. هربرت.

 انظر أيضاً

• الضغط السياسي في الولايات المتحدة
• سياسات الشتات في الولايات المتحدة
• جماعات المصالح العرقية في الولايات المتحدة
• اللوبي المناهض لإسرائيل في الولايات المتحدة
• اللوبي العربي في الولايات المتحدة
• لوبي مصر
• لوبي ليبيا
• لوبي پاكستان في الولايات المتحدة
• لوبي السعودية
• اللوبي التركي في الولايات المتحدة

 قراءات إضافية

• Nasser Aruri. Dishonest Broker: The Role of the United States in Palestine and Israel. South End Press, 2003. ISBN 978-0-89608-687-6.
• Kirk J. Beattie. Congress and the Shaping of the Middle East. Seven Stories Press. 2015. ISBN 978-1-60980-561-6.
• Zev Chafets. A Match Made in Heaven: American Jews, Christian Zionists, and One Man's Exploration of the Weird and Wonderful Judeo-Evangelical Alliance. HarperCollins, 2007. ISBN 978-0-06-089058-2.
• Paul Findley. They Dare to Speak Out: People and Institutions Confront Israel's Lobby. Lawrence Hill, 2003. ISBN 978-1-55652-482-0.
• Paul Findley. Deliberate Deceptions: Facing the Facts About the U.S.-Israeli Relationship. Lawrence Hill, 1995. ISBN 978-1-55652-239-0.
• Abraham H. Foxman. The Deadliest Lies: The Israel Lobby and the Myth of Jewish Control. Palgrave MacMillan, 2007.
• Glenn Frankel. A Beautiful Friendship. The Washington Post. July 16, 2006.
• Murray Friedman. The Neoconservative Revolution: Jewish Intellectuals and the Shaping of Public Policy. Cambridge University Press, 2006. ISBN 978-0-521-54501-3.
• Benjamin Ginsberg. The Fatal Embrace: Jews and the State. University of Chicago Press, 1999. ISBN 978-0-226-29666-1.
• J.J. Goldberg. Jewish Power: Inside the American Jewish Establishment. Basic Books, 1997. ISBN 978-0-201-32798-4.
• D. H. Goldberg. Foreign Policy and Ethnic Interest Groups: American and Canadian Jews Lobby for Israel. Greenwood Press, 1990. ISBN 978-0-313-26850-2.
• Stephen J. Green. Taking Sides: America's Secret Relations With Militant Israel. William Morrow & Co., 1984. ISBN 978-0-688-02643-1.
• Matthew Coen Leep. "The Affective Production of Others: United States Policy towards the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict,” Cooperation and Conflict 45(3): 331-352 (2010).
• Douglas Little. American Orientalism: The United States and the Middle East since 1945. University of North Carolina Press, 2004. ISBN 978-0-8078-5539-3.
• John J. Mearsheimer and Stephen Walt's The Israel Lobby and U.S. Foreign Policy
• James Petras. The Power of Israel in the United States. Clarity Press, 2006. ISBN 978-0-932863-51-5.
• Ariel Ilan Roth. "Reassurance: A Strategic Basis of U.S. Support for Israel," International Studies Perspectives 10:4 (2009): 378-394
• Cheryl Rubenberg. Israel and the American National Interest: A Critical Examination. University of Illinois Press, 1989. ISBN 978-0-252-06074-8.
• Stephen Schwartz. Is It Good for the Jews?: The Crisis of America's Israel Lobby. Doubleday, 2006. ISBN 978-0-385-51025-7.
• Jerome Slater. "The Two Books of Mearsheimer and Walt," Security Studies 18:1 (2009): 4-57.
• Janice Terry. U.S. Foreign Policy in the Middle East: The Role of Lobbies and Special Interest Groups. Pluto Press, 2005. ISBN 978-0-7453-2258-2.
• Edward Tivnan. The Lobby: Jewish Political Power and American Foreign Policy. Touchstone Books, 1988. ISBN 978-0-671-66828-0.
• David Verbeeten, How Important Is the Israel Lobby?, Middle East Quarterly, Fall 2006, pp. 37–44
• Timothy P. Weber. On the Road to Armageddon: How Evangelicals Became Israel's Best Friend. Baker Academic, 2005. ISBN 978-0-8010-3142-7.

 وصلات خارجية

• The Beginning of the Israel Lobby: Herzl Directs U.S. Zionists to Protest Discrimination in Palestine as Matter of “Equal Rights" Shapell Manuscript Foundation
• American Consuls to Jerusalem in the 19th Century
• Video From the Israel Lobby Debate
• Former Envoy: Israel Lobby Not All-Powerful - transcript of Dennis Ross' interview at NPR Morning Edition July 7, 2006.
• VPRO page about 2007 show "The Israel Lobby", VPRO Youtube clip of program, VPRO Video.
• Most Jews ever set to enter Congress – from The Jerusalem Post (January 7, 2007)
• Republicans more pro-Israel than Democrats – from U.S. News and World Report
• Ferment Over 'The Israel Lobby' – from The Nation
• "The other Israel lobby" – from Salon.com
• Can American Jews unplug the Israel lobby? – from Salon.com
• Inside America's powerful Israel lobby – from Salon.com
• "AIPAC Alternative?" – from The Nation (April 2007)
• Election power of the Israel lobby - from Al Jazeera
• Taming Leviathan, The Economist, March 15, 2007 (republished by the Council for the National Interest Foundation)