المعرفة

ذخيرة موجهة بدقة

(تم التحويل من ذخائر موجهة بدقة)

الذخيرة الموجهة بدقة (precision-guided munition؛ PGM؛ الأسلحة الذكية أو القنابل الذكية)، هي ذخيرة موجهة تهدف الاصابة الدقيقة لهدف معين، لتقليل الأضرار الجانبية وزيادة الفتك ضد الأهداف المقصودة.[1] خلال حرب الخليج الأولى، شكلت الذخائر الموجهة 9% فقط من الأسلحة التي تم إطلاقها، لكنها شكلت 75% من جميع الضربات الناجحة. على الرغم من استخدام الأسلحة الموجهة بشكل عام على أهداف أكثر صعوبة، إلا أنها لا تزال أكثر عرضة بنحو 35 ضعف لتدمير أهدافها لكل قنبلة يتم إسقاطه.[2]

اقوات الجوية الأفغانية تلقي بقنبلة موجهة طراز GBU-58 على مجمع تابع لحركة طالبان في ولایة فراه، أفغانستان، 22 مارس 2018.

نظرًا لأن تأثيرات الضرر الناجمة عن الأسلحة المتفجرة تتضاءل مع المسافة بسبب قانون المكعب العكسي، فحتى التحسينات المتواضعة في الدقة (وبالتالي تقليل مسافة الخطأ) تمكن من مهاجمة الهدف بقنابل أقل أو أصغر. وبالتالي، حتى لو أخطأت بعض القنابل الموجهة، فإن عددًا أقل من أطقم الطيران سيتعرض للخطر وقد يُقلل الضرر الذي يلحق بالمدنيين وحجم الأضرار الجانبية.[أ][ب]

أدى ظهور الذخائر الموجهة بدقة إلى إعادة تسمية القنابل القديمة "القنابل غير الموجهة" بالقنابل الغبية، أو القنابل الحديدية. من أبرز صانعي الذخائر الموجهة بدقة الولايات المتحدة وروسيا والصين والهند وإسرائيل وإيران وغيرها.


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الأنواع

المقالة الرئيسية: توجيه القذائف
 
قنبلة GBU-24 موجهة بالليزر (رأس حربي طراز BLU-109) في طريقها لضرب هدفها.

إدراكًا لصعوبة ضرب السفن المتحركة أثناء الحرب الأهلية الإسپانية،[9] كان الألمان أول من طور ذخائر قابلة للتوجيه، باستخدام التحكم اللاسلكي أو التوجيه السلكي. اختبرت الولايات المتحدة ذخائر موجهة بالتلفزيون (GB-4)،[10] أسلحة موجهة بالرادار شبه النشط (بات)، وأسلحة موجهة بالأشعة تحت الحمراء (فليكس).


التوجيه بالقصور الذاتي

سلاح الهجوم السلبي CBU-107 هو قنبلة موجهة تُسقط من الجو وتحتوي على قضبان معدنية خارقة بأحجام مختلفة. لقد تم تصميمه لمهاجمة الأهداف التي قد يكون فيها تأثير متفجر غير مرغوب فيه، مثل صهريج تخزين الوقود أو مخزون الأسلحة الكيميائية[11] في مناطق المدنيين.[12]

التوجيه اللاسلكي

المقالة الرئيسية: توجيه بالأوامر

كان الألمان أول من أدخل الصواريخ الموجهة بدقة في القتال، حيث قامت وحدة كي جي 100 بنشر القنبلة الانزلاقية المدرعة فريتز إكس الموجهة بنظام MCLOS، بوزن 1400 كجم، والموجهة عن طريق نظام التوجيه اللاسلكي كل-ستراسبورگ لمهاجمة البارجة الإيطالية روما بنجاح عام 1943،[13] والقنبلة الانزلاقية الموجهة هنشل إتش إس293 (تُستخدم أيضًا منذ عام 1943، لكن فقط ضد السفن المدرعة الخفيفة أو غير المدرعة).


كان أقرب القنابل المكافئة لدى الحلفاء، القنبلة VB-1 AZON التي يبلغ وزنها 450 كجم (التحكم من "AZimuth ONly")، المستخدمة في كل من مسرح العمليات الحرب العالمية الثانية في أوروپا والصين-بورما-الهند، وقنبلة بات التي تستخدمها البحرية الأمريكية، والتي استخدمت بشكل أساسي في مسرح عمليات المحيط الهادي- كانت بات أكثر تقدمًا من تصميم ذخائر PGM الألماني أو VB-1 AZON التابعة للقوات الجوية الأمريكية، حيث كانت مزودة بنظام رادار مستقل لتوجيهها إلى الهدف. بالإضافة إلى ذلك، اختبرت الولايات المتحدة الصاروخ گارگويل، الذي لم يدخل الخدمة مطلقًا.[14] الصواريخ اليابانية الموجهة بدقة - باستثناء المضادة للسفن التي تُطلق من الجو، وتعمل بالطاقة الصاروخية، بتحكم بشري، يوكوسوكا MXY-7 أه‌كا، القنبلة الطائرة "كامي‌كازه" لم تشهد قتالًا في الحرب العالمية الثانية.[15]

قبل الحرب، جرب البريطانيون طائرات موجهة لاسلكياً عن بعد ومحملة بالمتفجرات، مثل لارينكس. استخدمت القوات الجوية الأمريكية تقنيات مماثلة في العملية أفروديت، لكنها لم تحقق سوى نجاحات قليلة؛ لم تكن "الطائرة الطفيلية" الألمانية ميستل (Mistletoe) أكثر فعالية، حيث كانت توجه من قبل الطيار البشري الذي يقود المقاتلة ذات المحرك الواحد المثبتة فوق "القنبلة الطائرة" ذات المحركين، المسيرة، والمحملة بالمتفجرات أدناها. أطلقتها إحدى المقاتلات في هجوم ميستل.

استانفت الولايات المتحدة برامجها في الحرب الكورية. في الستينيات، أُعيد تقديم القنبلة الكهروضوئية (أو قنبلة الكاميرا). وكانت مجهزة بكاميرات تلفزيونية ومناظير مضيئة، يتم من خلالها توجيه القنبلة حتى تتراكب الشعلة على الهدف. وتنقل الكاميرات المفخخة "منظر عين القنبلة" للهدف إلى الطائرة المسيطرة. ثم يقوم أحد المشغلين في هذه الطائرة بإرسال إشارات التحكم إلى زعانف قابلة للتوجيه مثبتة على القنبلة. أُستخدمت هذه الأسلحة بشكل متزايد من قبل القوات الجوية الأمريكية في السنوات القليلة الأخيرة من حرب ڤيتنام لأن المناخ السياسي كان غير متسامح بشكل متزايد مع سقوط ضحايا من المدنيين، ولأنه كان من الممكن ضرب أهداف صعبة (مثل الجسور) بفعالية في مهمة واحدة؛ على سبيل المثال، تعرض جسر تانه هوا للهجوم بشكل متكرر بالقنابل الحديدية، لكن دون جدوى، ولم يسقط سوى باستخدام الذخائر الموجهة بدقة، وفي مهمة واحدة.

على الرغم من أنها ليست شائعة مثل أسلحة JDAM وJSOW الأحدث، أو حتى أنظمة القنابل الموجهة بالليزر الأقدم، إلا أن الأسلحة مثل AGM-62 Walleye الموجهة تلفزيونياً لا تزال قيد الاستخدام، جنبًا إلى جنب مع AAW-144 Data Link Pod، في طائرات إف 18 هورنت التابعة للبحرية الأمريكية.

الموجهة بالأشعة تحت الحمراء / الكهروضوئية

المقالة الرئيسية: توجيه بالأشعة تحت الحمراء

في الحرب العالمية الثانية، قامت لجنة أبحاث الدفاع الوطني الأمريكية بتطوير القنبلة ڤي بي-6 فليكس، التي تستخدم الأشعة تحت الحمراء للوصول إلى هدفه على متن السفن. على الرغم من أنها دخلت مرحلة الإنتاج في 1945، إلا أنها لم تستخدم مطلقًا.[16] كانت أول ذخيرة ناجحة موجهة كهروضوئياً هي AGM-62 Walleye أثناء حرب ڤيتنام. لقد كانت عائلة من القنابل الانزلاقية الكبيرة التي يمكنها تتبع الأهداف تلقائيًا باستخدام اختلافات التباين في بث الڤيديو. تأسس المفهوم الأصلي من قبل المهندس نورمان كاي أثناء العبث بأجهزة التلفزيون كهواية. كان يعتمد على جهاز يمكنه تتبع الأشياء على شاشة التلفزيون ووضع "صورة ضوئية" عليها للإشارة إلى المكان الذي يستهدفه. كان الاختبار الأول للسلاح في 29 يناير 1963 ناجحًا، حيث أصاب السلاح هدفه إصابة مباشرة. وخدم بنجاح لثلاثة عقود حتى التسعينيات.[17][18]

يعد ريثيون ماڤريك أكثر الصواريخ الموجهة كهروضوئياً شيوعاً. باعتباره صاروخًا ثقيلًا مضادًا للدبابات، فهو يمتلك من بين أنظمة التوجيه المختلفة مثل التوجيه الكهروضوئي (AGM-65A)، والتوجيه بالأشعة تحت الحمراء (AGM-65D)، والتوجيه بالليزر (AGM-65E).[19]

الأولان، من خلال توجيه أنفسهم بناءً على المشهد المرئي أو مشهد الأشعة تحت الحمراء للهدف، هما صاروخان ذكيان حيث يمكن للطيار إطلاق السلاح وسوف يوجه نفسه إلى الهدف دون مزيد من التدخل، مما يسمح للطائرة بالمناورة للهروب من النيران. القنبلتان الپاكستانيتان NESCOM H-2 MUPSOW وH-4 MUPSOW هما قنبلتان موجهتان كهروضوئياً (التوجيه بالأشعة تحت الحمراء والتوجيه التلفزيوني) هما قنابل انزلاقية ذكية موجهة بدقة. قنبلة إلبيت الإسرائيلية أوفير هي أيضًا قنبلة موجهة بالأشعة تحت الحمراء والتي تواردت تقارير بأنها أرخص بكثير من القنابل الموجهة بالليزر ويمكن استخدامها بواسطة أي طائرة، ولا تتطلب أسلاكًا متخصصة لمحدد ليزر أو لطائرة أخرى لإلقاء الضوء على الهدف. أثناء قصف الناتو لكوسوڤو عام 1999، استخدمت AF AMX الإيطالية الجديدة القنبلة أوفير.[20]

Laser-guided

المقالة الرئيسية: Laser-guided bomb
 
BOLT-117, the world's first laser-guided bomb

In 1962, the US Army began research into laser guidance systems and by 1967 the USAF had conducted a competitive evaluation leading to full development of the world's first laser-guided bomb, the BOLT-117, in 1968. All such bombs work in much the same way, relying on the target being illuminated, or "painted," by a laser target designator on the ground or on an aircraft. They have the significant disadvantage of not being usable in poor weather where the target illumination cannot be seen, or where a target designator cannot get near the target. The laser designator sends its beam in a coded series of pulses so the bomb cannot be confused by an ordinary laser, and also so multiple designators can operate in reasonable proximity.

Originally the project began as a surface to air missile seeker developed by Texas Instruments. When Texas Instruments executive Glenn E. Penisten attempted to sell the new technology to the Air Force they inquired if it could instead be used as a ground attack system to overcome problems they were having with accuracy of bombing in Vietnam. After 6 attempts the weapon improved accuracy from 148 to 10 ft (50 to 3 m) and greatly exceeded the design requirements. The system was sent to Vietnam and performed well. Without the existence of targeting pods they had to be aimed using a hand held laser from the back seat of an F-4 Phantom aircraft, but still performed well. Eventually over 28,000 were dropped during the war.[21]

 
Diagram showing the operation of a laser-guided ammunition round. From a CIA report, 1986.

Laser-guided weapons did not become commonplace until the advent of the microchip. They made their practical debut in Vietnam, where on 13 May 1972 they were used in the second successful attack on the Thanh Hóa Bridge ("Dragon's Jaw"). This structure had previously been the target of 800 American sorties[22] (using unguided weapons) and was partially destroyed in each of two successful attacks, the other being on 27 April 1972 using AGM-62 Walleyes.

They were used, though not on a large scale, by the British forces during the 1982 Falklands War.[23] The first large-scale use of smart weapons came in the early 1990s during Operation Desert Storm when they were used by coalition forces against Iraq. Even so, most of the air-dropped ordnance used in that war was "dumb," although the percentages are biased by the large use of various (unguided) cluster bombs. Laser-guided weapons were used in large numbers during the 1999 Kosovo War, but their effectiveness was often reduced by the poor weather conditions prevalent in the southern Balkans.

Paveway is a series of laser-guided bombs made in the United States. Paveway II 500 lb (230 kg) LGBs (such as GBU-12) are a cheaper lightweight precision-guided munition (PGM) suitable for use against vehicles and other small targets, while a Paveway III 2,000 lb (910 kg) penetrator (such as GBU-24) is a more expensive weapon with improved aerodynamic efficiency suitable for use against high-value targets. GBU-12s were used to great effect in the first Gulf War, dropped from F-111F aircraft to destroy Iraqi armored vehicles in a process informally referred to by pilots as "tank plinking."

It is composed of a Mark 83 bomb fitted with a Paveway guidance kit and two Mk 78 solid propellant rockets that fire upon launch.
The notable novelty is that the system does not use aerodynamic flight control (e.g. tail fins), but impulse steering with mini-thrusters.[32] It has been dubbed as the Russian concept of impulse corrections (RCIC).[34][32]
  • The Roketsan Cirit is a Turkish laser guided missile.
  • The Griffin Laser Guided Bomb (Griffin LGB) is a laser-guided bomb system made by Israel Aerospace Industries' MBT missile division. It is an add-on kit which is used to retrofit existing Mark 82, Mark 83, and Mark 84 and other "dumb fire" gravity bombs, making them into laser-guided smart bombs (with the option of GPS guidance). Initial development completed in 1990.
  • Cirit is a 2.8 in (70 mm) guided missile system fitted with a semi-active laser homing seeker. The seeker and guidance section is attached to a purpose-built warhead with a Class 5 Insensitive Munition (IM). The multipurpose warhead has a combined armour-piercing ammunition with enhanced behind armor anti-personnel and incendiary effects. The engine is of reduced smoke design, with IM properties. It is connected to the rear section by a roll bearing that enables it to rotate in flight. There are four small stabilising surfaces at the very rear of the missile in front of the exhaust nozzle that ensures stable flight. Roketsan has developed a new launch pod and a new canister in which Cirit is delivered as an all-up round. The Cirit has a maximum effective guided range of 5.0 mi (8 km) with a high probability of hit on a 9.8 ft × 9.8 ft (3 m × 3 m) target at this range.[35][36]

موجهة بالرادار

المقالة الرئيسية: التوجيه بالرادار

يستخدم سلاح Lockheed-Martin هلفاير 2 خفيف الوزن المضاد للدبابات الرادار الموجود على بوينگ إيه إتش-64دي أپاتشي لونگبو لتوفير توجيه أطلق وانس لهذا السلاح.


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Satellite-guided

المقالة الرئيسية: Satellite navigation systems
 
A F-22 releases a JDAM from its center internal bay while flying at supersonic speed
 
HOPE/HOSBO of the Luftwaffe with a combination of GPS/INS and electro-optical guidance

Lessons learned during the first Gulf War showed the value of precision munitions, yet they also highlighted the difficulties in employing them—specifically when visibility of the ground or target from the air was degraded.[37] The problem of poor visibility does not affect satellite-guided weapons such as Joint Direct Attack Munition (JDAM) and Joint Stand-Off Weapon (JSOW), which make use of the United States' GPS system for guidance. This weapon can be employed in all weather conditions, without any need for ground support. Because it is possible to jam GPS, the guidance package reverts to inertial navigation in the event of GPS signal loss. Inertial navigation is significantly less accurate; the JDAM achieves a published Circular Error Probable (CEP) of 43 ft (13 m) under GPS guidance, but typically only 98 ft (30 m) under inertial guidance (with free fall times of 100 seconds or less).[38][39]

The Griffin conversion kit consists of a front "seeker" section and a set of steerable tailplanes. The resulting guided munition features "trajectory shaping", which allows the bomb to fall along a variety of trajectories – from a shallow angle to a vertical top attack profile. IAI publishes a circular error probable figure for the weapon of 5 metres.[42]
 
KAB-500S-E. Russian GLONASS-Guided Bomb
  • The GBU-57A/B Massive Ordnance Penetrator (MOP) is a U.S. Air Force, precision-guided, 30,000-pound (14,000 kg) "bunker buster" bomb.[43] This is substantially larger than the deepest penetrating bunker busters previously available, the 5,000-pound (2,300 kg) GBU-28 and GBU-37.
  • The SMKB (Smart-MK-Bomb) is a Brazilian guidance kit that turns a standard 500-pound (230 kg) Mk 82 or 1,000-pound (450 kg) Mk 83 into a precision-guided weapon, respectively called SMKB-82 and SMKB-83. The kit provides extended range up to 31 mi (50 km) and are guided by an integrated inertial guidance system coupled to three satellites networks (GPS, Galileo and GLONASS), relying on wireless to handle the flow of data between the aircraft and the munition.
  • FT PGB is a family of Chinese satellite and Inertial, guided munitions.
  • LS PGB is a family of Chinese GPS+INS or laser guided munitions.

The precision of these weapons is dependent both on the precision of the measurement system used for location determination and the precision in setting the coordinates of the target. The latter critically depends on intelligence information, not all of which is accurate. According to a CIA report, the accidental United States bombing of the Chinese embassy in Belgrade during Operation Allied Force by NATO aircraft was attributed to faulty target information.[44] However, if the targeting information is accurate, satellite-guided weapons are significantly more likely to achieve a successful strike in any given weather conditions than any other type of precision-guided munition.

Advanced guidance concepts

Responding to after-action reports from pilots who employed laser or satellite guided weapons, Boeing developed a Laser JDAM (LJDAM) to provide both types of guidance in a single kit. Based on the existing Joint Direct Attack Munition configurations, a laser guidance package is added to a GPS/INS-guided weapon to increase its overall accuracy.[45] Raytheon has developed the Enhanced Paveway family, which adds GPS/INS guidance to their Paveway family of laser-guidance packages.[46] These "hybrid" laser and GPS guided weapons permit the carriage of fewer weapons types, while retaining mission flexibility, because these weapons can be employed equally against moving and fixed targets, or targets of opportunity. For instance, a typical weapons load on an F-16 flying in the Iraq War included a single 2,000-pound (910 kg) JDAM and two 1,000-pound (450 kg) LGBs. With LJDAM, and the new GBU-39 Small Diameter Bomb (SDB), these same aircraft can carry more bombs if necessary, and have the option of satellite or laser guidance for each weapon release.

The U.S. Navy leads development for a new 155 mm (6.1 in) artillery round called Moving Target Artillery Round, capable of destroying moving targets in GPS-denied environments". The Office of Naval Research (ONR), the Naval Surface Warfare Center Dahlgren Division (NSWC Dahlgren), and the U.S. Army Research Laboratory (ARL) have been coordinating MTAR, with final development scheduled for 2019.[52]
Key features of the MTAR shell include extended range against moving targets, precision guidance and navigation without GPS, subsystem modularity, subsystem maturity, weapon system compatibility, restricted altitude, all-weather capability, reduced time of flight, and affordability. The new munition is intended for the Army or Marine Corps M777A1 howitzer, the M109A6 Paladin, and M109A7 Paladin Integrated Management (PIM) self-propelled 155 mm (6.1 in) artillery systems. The shell also would be for the Navy's Advanced Gun System (AGS) aboard the Zumwalt-class destroyer, and other future naval gun systems.[53]
  • Precision Guidance Kit – Modernization (PGK-M)
The U.S. Army is planning for GPS-denied environments with the new Precision Guidance Kit – Modernization (PGK-M). An enhancement of previous technologies, PGK-M will give U.S. forces the ability to continue launching precision strikes when GPS is compromised by the enemy.[54]
Picatinny Arsenal engineers are leading the development of a GPS alternative using image navigation for precision guidance of munitions, under the Armament Research, Development and Engineering Center (ARDEC). Other research partners include Draper Labs, U.S. Army Research Laboratory, Air Force Research Laboratory and the Aviation and Missile Research, Development, and Engineering Center.[55]
The enhanced munition can navigate to a desired location, through a reference image used by the technology to reach the target.[55] The PGK-M includes a collection of ad hoc software programmable radio networks, various kinds of wave-relay connectivity technologies and navigational technology.[54]
  • PBK-500U Drel is a Russian guided jamming-resistant stealth glide bomb.

Cannon and mortar-launched guided projectiles

المقالة الرئيسية: Cannon-launched guided projectile

A cannon-launched guided projectile (CLGP), is fired from artillery, ship's cannon, or armored vehicles. Several agencies and organizations sponsored the CLGP programs. The United States Navy sponsored the Deadeye program, a laser-guided shell for its 5 in (127 mm) guns[56] and a program to mate a Paveway guidance system to an 8 in (203 mm) shell[57] for the 8"/55 caliber Mark 71 gun in the 1970s (Photo). Other Navy efforts include the BTERM, ERGM, and LRLAP shells.

STRIX is fired like a conventional mortar round. The round contains an infrared imaging sensor that it uses to guide itself onto any tank or armoured fighting vehicle in the vicinity where it lands. The seeker is designed to ignore targets that are already burning.[61]


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Guided small arms

المقالة الرئيسية: Precision-guided firearm

Precision-guided small arms prototypes have been developed which use a laser designator to guide an electronically actuated bullet to a target.[74] Another system in development uses a laser range finder to trigger an explosive small arms shell in proximity to a target. The U.S. Army plans to use such devices in the future.[75]

In 2008 the EXACTO program began under DARPA to develop a "fire and forget" smart sniper rifle system including a guided smart bullet and improved scope. The exact technologies of this smart bullet have not been released. EXACTO was test fired in 2014 and 2015 and results showing the bullet alter course to correct its path to its target were released.[76]

In 2012 Sandia National Laboratories announced a self-guided bullet prototype that could track a target illuminated with a laser designator. The bullet is capable of updating its position 30 times a second and hitting targets over a mile away.[77]

In mid-2016, Russia revealed it was developing a similar "smart bullet" weapon designed to hit targets at a distance of up to 6 mi (10 km).[78][79]

Pike[80] is a precision-guided mini-missile fired from an underslung grenade launcher.

Air burst grenade launchers are a type of precision-guided weapons. Such grenade launchers can preprogram their grenades using a fire-control system to explode in the air above or beside the enemy.[81][82][83]

انظر أيضاً

الهوامش

  1. ^ "During Russia’s participation in the Syrian Civil War, only one of its aircraft, the Su-34 fighter-bomber, regularly used precision-guided munitions, Bronk explained, and even that aircraft often used unguided bombs and rockets.".[3]
  2. ^ Connectivity to GLONASS may be a factor in the lack of Russian PGM availability,[4] and the use of 3G/4G cell towers for Russian encrypted communications (Era) [5] during the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine. This weakness was unearthed during the use of open communication ("Russian commanders are sometimes piggybacking on Ukrainian cell phone networks to communicate")[6] when FSB was discussing the deaths of their generals: Vitaly Gerasimov, killed 7 Mar 2022;[7] Andrei Sukhovetsky, killed 28 Feb 2022.[8][4]
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