الحركة في الحيوان

Animal locomotion, in ethology, is any of a variety of movements or methods that animals use to move from one place to another. Some modes of locomotion are (initially) self-propelled, e.g., running, swimming, jumping, flying, hopping, soaring and gliding. There are also many animal species that depend on their environment for transportation, a type of mobility called passive locomotion, e.g., sailing (some jellyfish), kiting (spiders) and rolling (some beetles and spiders).

A cheetah chasing prey. In its brief hunting sprints, it is the fastest of all land animals.

A bee in flight

Animals move for a variety of reasons, such as to find food, a mate, a suitable microhabitat, or to escape predators. For many animals, the ability to move is essential for survival and, as a result, natural selection has shaped the locomotion methods and mechanisms used by moving organisms. For example, migratory animals that travel vast distances (such as the Arctic tern) typically have a locomotion mechanism that costs very little energy per unit distance, whereas non-migratory animals that must frequently move quickly to escape predators are likely to have energetically costly, but very fast, locomotion.

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 Locomotion in different media

Animals move through, or on, four types of environment: aquatic (in or on water), terrestrial (on ground or other surface, including arboreal, or tree-dwelling), fossorial (underground), and aerial (in the air). Many animals—for example semi-aquatic animals, and diving birds—regularly move through more than one type of medium. In some cases, the surface they move on facilitates their method of locomotion.

 Aquatic

 Swimming

Dolphins surfing

للمزيد من المعلومات: Fish locomotion

 Benthic

Scallop in jumping motion; these bivalves can also swim.

 Aquatic surface

Velella moves by sailing.

Velella, the by-the-wind sailor, is a cnidarian with no means of propulsion other than sailing. A small rigid sail projects into the air and catches the wind. Velella sails always align along the direction of the wind where the sail may act as an aerofoil, so that the animals tend to sail downwind at a small angle to the wind.

الهيدرا : تعتمد على 3 طرق في الحركة : الزحف والشقلبة والسباحة بالاعتماد على (خلايا عضلية خاصة). دودة الأرض : تستطيع الحركة بواسطة أنسجة عضلية خاصة.

يوجد على كل قطعة من الناحية البطنية من جسم دودة الأرض)ماعدا القطعة الأولى والأخيرة(أربعة أزواج من الأشواك تساعد في الحركة وتتلخص طريقة الحركة بأن تثبت الدودة القسم الخلفي من جسمها بواسطة الأشواك، بينما تخفي أشواك القسم الأمامي في جيوب خاصة موجودة في جدار الجسم، ثم تمتد نحو الأمام بانبساط العضلات الطولية، وانقباض العضلات الدائرية التي تضغط على السائل السيلومي، فتدفع مقدمة الجسم إلى الأمام، وتثبتها في الأرض، بينما تختفي أشواك القسم الخلفي ثم تنقبض عضلاتها الطولية، وتنبسط عضلاتها الدائرية، فتنسحب مؤخرة الجسم خلف الجزء الأمامي، وبتكرار هذه العملية تتحرك الدودة.

 نوع العضلات في الهيدرا ودودة الأرض

في الهيدرا تكون خلايا عضلية ودودة الأرض أنسجة عضلية.

 Aerial

 Active flight

A pair of brimstone butterflies in flight. The female, above, is in fast forward flight with a small angle of attack; the male, below, is twisting his wings sharply upward to gain lift and fly up towards the female.

 Gliding

Flying fish taking off

 Soaring

Examples of soaring flight by birds are the use of:

• Thermals and convergences by raptors such as vultures
• Ridge lift by gulls near cliffs
• Wave lift by migrating birds
• Dynamic effects near the surface of the sea by albatrosses

 Terrestrial

انظر أيضاً: Comparative foot morphology

Pacific leaping blenny Alticus arnoldorum hopping

Pacific leaping blenny climbing up a vertical piece of Plexiglas

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 Sliding

Due to its low coefficient of friction, ice provides the opportunity for other modes of locomotion. Penguins either waddle on their feet or slide on their bellies across the snow, a movement called tobogganing, which conserves energy while moving quickly. Some pinnipeds perform a similar behaviour called sledding.

 Walking and running

Species have different numbers of legs resulting in large differences in locomotion.

• Bipedal ostrich

• Hexapedal stick-insect

• Octopedal locomotion by a spider

• Multi-legged millipede

 الحركة الشجرية

A brachiating gibbon

 Passive locomotion

Passive locomotion in animals is a type of mobility in which the animal depends on their environment for transportation.

 Hydrozoans

Physalia physalis

 Animal transport

Some animals change location because they are attached to, or reside on, another animal or moving structure. This is arguably more accurately termed "animal transport".

 Remoras

Some remoras, such as this Echeneis naucrates, may attach themselves to scuba divers.

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 الثدييات المائية

Pacific white-sided dolphins porpoising

 الوظيفة

 الحصول على الطعام

Paddlefish ram suspension-feeding zooplankton in aquarium

Animals use locomotion in a wide variety of ways to procure food. Terrestrial methods include ambush predation, social predation, grazing. Aquatic methods include filterfeeding, grazing, ram feeding, suction feeding, protrusion and pivot feeding. Other methods include parasitism and parasitoidism.

 طرق الدراسة

Documentary film, shot at 1200 fps, used to study the locomoton of a cheetah. The end of the video shows the methods used for filming.

A variety of methods and equipment are used to study animal locomotion:

 معارض

Swimming in major groups of formerly terrestrial animals

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  Coypu (Rodentia)

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  Frog (Anura)

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  Sperm whales (Cetacea)

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  Gentoo penguin (Aves)

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  Marine iguana (Reptilia)

Flight in major groups

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  Australian Emperor dragonfly (Insecta)

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  Magpie goose (Aves)

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  Townsend's big-eared bat (Chiroptera)

 انظر أيضاً

• Animal migration
• Animal navigation
• Feather
• Joint
• Kinesis (biology)
• Movement of Animals (book)
• Role of skin in locomotion
• Taxis

 للاستزادة

• McNeill Alexander, Robert. (2003) Principles of Animal Locomotion. Princeton University Press, Princeton, N.J. ISBN 0-691-08678-8

 وصلات خارجية

• Beetle Orientation
• Unified Physics Theory Explains Animals' Running, Flying And Swimming