الكتاب المقدس

(تم التحويل من Bible)
هذا المقال هو عن the religious book. إذا كنت تريد other uses، انظر الكتاب المقدس (توضيح).
Several terms redirect here. For other uses, see Biblical (disambiguation) and The Holy Bible (disambiguation).
Bible
The Gutenberg Bible, published in the mid-15th century by Johannes Gutenberg, is the first published Bible.
معلومات
الديانة
اللغةHebrew, Aramaic, and Greek
الفترةSee Dating the Bible
النص الكامل
Bible at English Wikisource
جزء من سلسلة عن
الكتاب المقدس
كتاب مالمسبري المقدس
كتاب مالمسبري المقدس
دراسات كتابية
نقد كتابي
التفسير
وجهات نظر
Outline of Bible-related topics
"الكتاب المقدس" هو اسم الكتاب المرجعي للديانة اليهودية أو المسيحية. لقائمة الكتب المقدسة للأديان عامةً، اذهب إلى كتاب مقدس.

الكتاب المقدس هو الاسم الذي يطلقه سواء المسيحيون أو اليهود على النصوص المقدسة المقبولة لكليهما معًا (أو قد تختلف في أجزاء منها). و يتفقوا أنها نصوص موحى بها من الله، أو من خلال الروح القدس (لدى المسيحيين). و الكتاب المقدس عبارة عن ترتيب لمجموعة من الكتب (أسفار)، كتبت في فترات تاريخية مختلفة. و ينقسم إلى العهد القديم، و هو الجزء المشترك بين المسيحيين و اليهود، و العهد الجديد. كتب العهد القديم هي أسفار النبي موسى الخمسة، و تعرف باسم التوراة لدى اليهود. و "الأنبياء"، و هي كتب أنبياء اليهود. و كتب تاريخية و تسبيحية أخرى. و تلك منها مزامير النبي داود (الزبور).

وكتب العهد الجديد هي الأناجيل الأربعة متى، مرقس، لوقا، يوحنا. و خلافاً لما هو سائد عند المسلمين، فالمسيح عند المسيحيين ليس له كتاب خاص، لأن الأناجيل كتبت عن حياة السيد المسيح، و الأناجيل بحسب التقليد الكنسي والليتورجيا الكنسية والمخطوطات منسوبة لأربعة من رسل المسيح، أثنان منهم ضمن الاثني عشرة تلميذاً الذين أرسلهم ليبشروا في العالم أجمع في يوم الخمسين عندما قال لهم بحسب الإنجيل

  • اذهبوا إلى العالم اجمع واكرزوا بالإنجيل للخليقة كلها. الإنجيل بحسب القديس مرقس 15:16
  • فاذهبوا وتلمذوا جميع الأمم وعمدوهم باسم الآب والابن والروح القدس . وعلموهم أن يحفظوا جميع ما أوصيتكم به . وها أنا معكم كل الأيام إلى انقضاء الدهر. الإنجيل بحسب متى 18:28-20

واثنين من السبعين رسولاً وهم مرقس ولوقا. يلي ذلك سفر أعمال الرسل الذي كاتبه لوقا بحسب التقليد و الليتورجيا والدراسات التاريخية التي تؤكد على أن هذا الكتاب كُتب في القرن الأول، و هو بمثابة كتاب تاريخي لسفريات الرسل لكن التركيز الأكبر في اعمال الرسل كان على بولس ثم بطرس الرسول، و انتشار الكلمة في العالم القديم. ويليه 14 رسالة لبولس الرسول وهناك بعض الآباء يقولون أن رسالة العبرانيين قد كتبها (لوقا، برنابا، أو احد أخر) وثلاث رسائل ليوحنا كاتب الإنجيل ورسالتين لبطرس الرسول ورسالة ليعقوب ورسالة ليهوذا موجهة لأفراد أو جهات،و عدد من الحواريين الآخرين. و أخيرًا سفر الرؤيا، ليوحنا بن زبدي. و الأخير يتضمن نبوات "لما هو كائن وسوف يكون"، يختلف الكثيرون في تفسيرها.

واللغة الأصلية للعهد القديم هي العبرية، و اليهود يعتبرون أن اللغة العبرية لغة مقدسة لذلك يرفضون الكتابة بغير العبري ولكن هناك بعض الآيات في الأسفار التي كُتبت بعد السبي بالآرامي. أما العهد الجديد، فقد كتب باليونانية، إلا إنجيل متى يعتقد البعض أنه كتب بالعبري أولاً لكن أقدم مخطوط هو بالايوناني، لينتشر في العالم الهلنستي آنئذٍ. و قد تمت ترجمته إلى اللغة العربية خلال فترات عدة، خاصة بعد انتشار المسيحية. و الترجمة الأكثر انتشارًا في العالم العربي هي ترجمة سميث و فانديك بمساعدة العلامة بطرس البستاني صاحب محيط المحيط لذلك تعتبر هذه الترجمة دقيقة جداً والتي تعتبر من أدق الترجمات العربية وتعترف بها كل الطوائف المسيحية.

عدد مخطوطات الكتاب المقدس:

يبلغ عدد المخطوطات للكتاب المقدس 330 آلف مخطوطة يرجع أقدمها للقرن التاسع قبل الميلاد لسفر الملوك.

التحريف

الرأي المسيحي

ما من دليل يظهر أنّه تم العبث بالكتاب المقدس كما تدعي أمة الإسلام. وعد يسوع: "فَإِنِّي الْحَقَّ أَقُولُ لَكُمْ: إِلَى أَنْ تَزُولَ السَّمَاءُ وَالأَرْضُ لاَ يَزُولُ حَرْفٌ وَاحِدٌ أَوْ نُقْطَةٌ وَاحِدَةٌ مِنَ النَّامُوسِ حَتَّى يَكُونَ الْكُلُّ." (متى 18:5). توجد آلاف المخطوطات للكتاب المقدس التي تدعم كون الكتاب المقدس غير محرف.[1]

ما كتبه ابن خلدون في المقدمة

جاء المسيح صلوات الله وسلامه عليه بما جاءهم به من الدين والنسخ لبعض أحكام التوراة وظهرت على يديه الخوارق العجيبة من إبراء الأكمه والأبرص وإحياء الموتى واجتمع عليه كثير من الناس وآمنوا به وأكثرهم الحواريون من أصحابه وكانوا اثني عشر وبعث منهم رسلا إلى الآفاق داعين إلى ملته وذلك أيام أوغسطس أول ملوك القياصرة وفي مدة هيرودس ملك اليهود الذي انتزع الملك من بني حشمناي أصهاره فحسده اليهود وكذبوه وكاتب هيرودس ملكهم ملك القياصرة أوغسطس يغريه به فأذن لهم في قتله ووقع ما تلاه القرآن من أمره وافترق الحواريون شيعا ودخل أكثرهم بلاد الروم داعين إلى دين النصرانية وكان بطرس كبيرهم فنزل برومة دار ملك القياصرة ثم كتبوا الإنجيل الذي أنزل على عيسى صلوات الله عليه في نسخ أربع على اختلاف رواياتهم فكتب متى إنجيله في بيت المقدس بالعبرانية ونقله يوحنا بن زبدي منهم إلى اللسان اللاتيني وكتب لوقا منهم إنجيله باللاتيني إلى بعض أكابر الروم وكتب يوحنا بن زبدي منهم إنجيله برومة وكتب بطرس إنجيله باللاتيني ونسبه إلى مرقاص تلميذه واختلفت هذه النسخ الأربع من الإنجيل مع أنها ليست كلها وحيا صرفا بل مشوبة بكلام عيسى عليه السلام وبكلام الحواريين وكلها مواعظ وقصص والأحكام فيها قليلة جدا واجتمع الحواريون الرسل لذلك العهد برومة ووضوا قوانين الملة النصرانية وصيروها بيد أقليمنطس تلميذ بطرس وكتبوا فيها عدد الكتب التي يجب قبولها والعمل بها إليه ص 289 من الجزء الاول مقدمة ابن خلدون طابعة دار الفكر خليل شحاتة

Versions and translations

للمزيد من المعلومات: Bible translations, List of Bible translations by language, Bible translations into English, and List of English Bible translations
Title page from the first Welsh translation of the Bible, published in 1588, and translated by William Morgan)
An early German translation of the Bible by Martin Luther, whose translation of the text into the vernacular was highly influential in the development of Lutheranism and the Reformation

The original texts of the Tanakh were almost entirely written in Hebrew with about one per cent in Aramaic. The earliest translation of any Bible text is the Septuagint which translated the Hebrew into Greek.[2] As the first translation of any biblical literature, the translation that became the Septuagint was an unparalleled event in the ancient world.[3] This translation was made possible by a common Mediterranean culture where Semitism had been foundational to Greek culture.[4] In the Talmud, Greek is the only language officially allowed for translation.[5] The Targum Onkelos is the Aramaic translation of the Hebrew Bible believed to have been written in the second century CE.[2] These texts attracted the work of various scholars, but a standardized text was not available before the 9th century.[2]

There were different ancient versions of the Tanakh in Hebrew. These were copied and edited in three different locations producing slightly varying results. Masoretic scholars in Tiberias in ancient Palestine copied the ancient texts in Tiberian Hebrew. A copy was recovered from the "Cave of Elijah" (the synagogue of Aleppo in the Judean desert) and is therefore referred to as the Aleppo Codex which dates to around 920. This codex, which is over a thousand years old, was originally the oldest codex of the complete Tiberian Hebrew Bible.[6] Babylonian masoretes had also copied the early texts, and the Tiberian and Babylonian were later combined, using the Aleppo Codex and additional writings, to form the Ben-Asher masoretic tradition which is the standardized Hebrew Bible of today. The Aleppo Codex is no longer the oldest complete manuscript because, during riots in 1947, the Aleppo Codex was removed from its location, and about 40% of it was subsequently lost. It must now rely on additional manuscripts, and as a result, the Aleppo Codex contains the most comprehensive collection of variant readings.[7] The oldest complete version of the Masoretic tradition is the Leningrad Codex from 1008. It is the source for all modern Jewish and Christian translations.[2][6]

Levidas writes that, "The Koine Greek New Testament is a non-translated work; most scholars agree on this – despite disagreement on the possibility that some passages may have appeared initially in Aramaic... It is written in the Koine Greek of the first century [CE]".[8] Early Christians translated the New Testament into Old Syriac, Coptic, Ethiopic, and Latin, among other languages.[9] The earliest Latin translation was the Old Latin text, or Vetus Latina, which, from internal evidence, seems to have been made by several authors over a period of time.[10][11]

Pope Damasus I (366–383) commissioned Jerome to produce a reliable and consistent text by translating the original Greek and Hebrew texts into Latin. This translation became known as the Latin Vulgate Bible, in the 4th century CE (although Jerome expressed in his prologues to most deuterocanonical books that they were non-canonical).[12][13] In 1546, at the Council of Trent, Jerome's Vulgate translation was declared by the Roman Catholic Church to be the only authentic and official Bible in the Latin Church.[14] The Greek-speaking East continued to use the Septuagint translations of the Old Testament, and they had no need to translate the Greek New Testament.[10][11] This contributed to the East-West Schism.[15]

Many ancient translations coincide with the invention of the alphabet and the beginning of vernacular literature in those languages. According to British Academy professor N. Fernández Marcos, these early translations represent "pioneer works of enormous linguistic interest, as they represent the oldest documents we have for the study of these languages and literature".[16]

Translations to English can be traced to the seventh century, Alfred the Great in the 9th century, the Toledo School of Translators in the 12th and 13th century, Roger Bacon (1220–1292), an English Franciscan friar of the 13th century, and multiple writers of the Renaissance.[17] The Wycliffite Bible, which is "one of the most significant in the development of a written standard", dates from the late Middle English period.[18] William Tyndale's translation of 1525 is seen by several scholars as having influenced the form of English Christian discourse as well as impacting the development of the English language itself.[19] Martin Luther translated the New Testament into German in 1522, and both Testaments with Apocrypha in 1534, thereby contributing to the multiple wars of the Age of Reformation and Counter-Reformation. Important biblical translations of this period include the Polish Jakub Wujek Bible (Biblia Jakuba Wujka) from 1535, and the English King James/Authorized Version (1604–1611).[20] The King James Version was the most widespread English Bible of all time, but it has largely been superseded by modern translations.[21] Some New Testaments verses found to be later additions to the text are not included in modern English translations, despite appearing in older English translations such as the King James Version.

Historically significant translations of the Bible in English
Name Abbreviation Published[أ]
Wycliffe Bible WYC 1382
Tyndale Bible[ب] TYN 1526[ت]
Geneva Bible GNV 1560
Douay–Rheims Bible DRB 1610[ث]
King James Version KJV 1611
English Revised Version RV 1885
Revised Standard Version RSV 1952
New American Bible NAB 1970
New International Version NIV 1978
New King James Version NKJV 1982
New Revised Standard Version NRSV 1989
English Standard Version ESV 2001

Some denominations have additional canonical texts beyond the Bible, including the Standard Works of the Latter Day Saints movement and Divine Principle in the Unification Church.

Nearly all modern English translations of the Old Testament are based on a single manuscript, the Leningrad Codex, copied in 1008 or 1009. It is a complete example of the Masoretic Text, and its published edition is used by the majority of scholars. The Aleppo Codex is the basis of the Hebrew University Bible Project in Jerusalem.[7]

Since the Reformation era, Bible translations have been made into the common vernacular of many languages. The Bible continues to be translated to new languages, largely by Christian organizations such as Wycliffe Bible Translators, New Tribes Mission and Bible societies. Lamin Sanneh writes that tracing the impact on the local cultures of translating the Bible into local vernacular language shows it has produced "the movements of indigenization and cultural liberation".[22] "The translated scripture ... has become the benchmark of awakening and renewal".[23]

Bible translations, worldwide (اعتبارا من أغسطس 2025)[24]
Number Statistic
7,396 Approximate number of languages spoken in the world today
4,457 Number of translations into new languages in progress
1,433 Number of languages with some translated Bible portions
1,798 Number of languages with a translation of the New Testament
776 Number of languages with a full translation of the Bible (Protestant Canon)
4,007 Total number of languages with some Bible translation

الأبحاث الأثرية والتاريخية

المقالة الرئيسية: Biblical archaeology school, Historicity of the Bible, and Religiously motivated pseudoarchaeology
انظر أيضاً: Dating the Bible
The Tel Dan Stele at the Israel Museum. Highlighted in white: the sequence B Y T D W D

Biblical archaeology is a subsection of archaeology that relates to and sheds light upon the Hebrew scriptures and the New Testament.[25] It is used to help determine the lifestyle and practices of people living in biblical times.[26] There are a wide range of interpretations in the field of biblical archaeology.[27] One broad division includes biblical maximalism, which generally takes the view that most of the Old Testament or the Hebrew Bible is based on history although it is presented through the religious viewpoint of its time. According to historian Lester L. Grabbe, there are "few, if any" maximalists in mainstream scholarship.[28] It is considered to be the extreme opposite of biblical minimalism which considers the Bible to be a purely post-exilic (5th century BCE and later) composition.[29] According to Mary Joan Winn Leith, professor of religious studies, many minimalists have ignored evidence for the antiquity of the Hebrew language in the Bible, and few take archaeological evidence into consideration.[30] Most biblical scholars and archaeologists fall somewhere on a spectrum between these two.[31][28]

The biblical account of events of the Exodus from Egypt in the Torah, the migration to the Promised Land, and the period of Judges are sources of heated ongoing debate. There is an absence of evidence for the presence of Israel in Egypt from any Egyptian source, historical or archaeological.[32] Yet, as William Dever points out, these biblical traditions were written long after the events they describe, and they are based in sources now lost and older oral traditions.[33]

The Hebrew Bible/Old Testament, ancient non–biblical texts, and archaeology support the Babylonian captivity beginning around 586 BCE.[34] Excavations in southern Judah show a pattern of destruction consistent with the Neo-Assyrian devastation of Judah at the end of the eighth century BCE and 2 Kings 18:13.[35] In 1993, at Tel Dan, archaeologist Avraham Biran unearthed a fragmentary Aramaic inscription, the Tel Dan stele, dated to the late ninth or early eighth century that mentions a "king of Israel" as well as a "house of David" (bet David). This shows David could not be a late sixth-century invention, and implies that Judah's kings traced their lineage back to someone named David.[36] However, there is no current archaeological evidence for the existence of King David and Solomon or the First Temple as far back as the tenth century BCE where the Bible places them.[37]

In the nineteenth and early twentieth century, surveys demonstrated that Acts of the Apostles (Acts) scholarship was divided into two traditions, "a conservative (largely British) tradition which had great confidence in the historicity of Acts and a less conservative (largely German) tradition which had very little confidence in the historicity of Acts". Subsequent surveys show that little has changed.[38] Author Thomas E. Phillips writes that "In this two-century-long debate over the historicity of Acts and its underlying traditions, only one assumption seemed to be shared by all: Acts was intended to be read as history".[39] This too is now being debated by scholars as: what genre does Acts actually belong to?[39] There is a growing consensus, however, that the question of genre is unsolvable and would not, in any case, solve the issue of historicity: "Is Acts history or fiction? In the eyes of most scholars, it is history – but not the kind of history that precludes fiction." says Phillips.[40]

Biblical criticism

المقالة الرئيسية: Biblical studies, Biblical criticism, Historical criticism, and Textual criticism
انظر أيضاً: Biblical authority
Jean Astruc, often called the "father of biblical criticism", at Centre hospitalier universitaire de Toulouse

Biblical criticism refers to the analytical investigation of the Bible as a text, and addresses questions such as history, authorship, dates of composition, and authorial intention. It is not the same as criticism of the Bible, which is an assertion against the Bible being a source of information or ethical guidance, nor is it criticism of possible translation errors.[41]

Biblical criticism made study of the Bible secularized, scholarly, and more democratic, while it also permanently altered the way people understood the Bible.[42] The Bible is no longer thought of solely as a religious artefact, and its interpretation is no longer restricted to the community of believers.[43] Michael Fishbane writes, "There are those who regard the desacralization of the Bible as the fortunate condition for" the development of the modern world.[44] For many, biblical criticism "released a host of threats" to the Christian faith. For others biblical criticism "proved to be a failure, due principally to the assumption that diachronic, linear research could master any and all of the questions and problems attendant on interpretation".[45] Still others believed that biblical criticism, "shorn of its unwarranted arrogance," could be a reliable source of interpretation.[45] Michael Fishbane compares biblical criticism to Job, a prophet who destroyed "self-serving visions for the sake of a more honest crossing from the divine textus to the human one".[43] Or as Rogerson says: biblical criticism has been liberating for those who want their faith "intelligently grounded and intellectually honest".[46]

Bible museums

Illustrations

The grandest medieval Bibles were illuminated manuscripts in which the text is supplemented by the addition of decoration, such as decorated initials, borders (marginalia) and miniature illustrations. Up to the 12th century, most manuscripts were produced in monasteries in order to add to the library or after receiving a commission from a wealthy patron. Larger monasteries often contained separate areas for the monks who specialized in the production of manuscripts called a scriptorium, where "separate little rooms were assigned to book copying; they were situated in such a way that each scribe had to himself a window open to the cloister walk."[57] By the 14th century, the cloisters of monks writing in the scriptorium started to employ laybrothers from the urban scriptoria, especially in Paris, Rome and the Netherlands.[58] Demand for manuscripts grew to an extent that the Monastic libraries were unable to meet with the demand, and began employing secular scribes and illuminators.[59] These individuals often lived close to the monastery and, in certain instances, dressed as monks whenever they entered the monastery, but were allowed to leave at the end of the day.[60] A notable example of an illuminated manuscript is the Book of Kells, produced circa the year 800 containing the four Gospels of the New Testament together with various prefatory texts and tables.

The manuscript was "sent to the rubricator, who added (in red or other colours) the titles, headlines, the initials of chapters and sections, the notes and so on; and then – if the book was to be illustrated – it was sent to the illuminator."[61] In the case of manuscripts that were sold commercially, the writing would "undoubtedly have been discussed initially between the patron and the scribe (or the scribe's agent,) but by the time that the written gathering were sent off to the illuminator there was no longer any scope for innovation."[62]

  • Bible from 1150, from Scriptorium de Chartres, Christ with angels
    Bible from 1150, from Scriptorium de Chartres, Christ with angels
  • Blanche of Castile and Louis IX of France Bible, 13th century
    Blanche of Castile and Louis IX of France Bible, 13th century
  • Maciejowski Bible, Leaf 37, the 3rd image, Abner (in the centre in green) sends Michal back to David.
    Maciejowski Bible, Leaf 37, the 3rd image, Abner (in the centre in green) sends Michal back to David.
  • Jephthah's daughter laments – Maciejowski Bible (France, 1250ح. 1250)
    Jephthah's daughter laments – Maciejowski Bible (France, 1250ح. 1250)
  • Coloured version of the Whore of Babylon illustration from Martin Luther's 1534 translation of the Bible
    Coloured version of the Whore of Babylon illustration from Martin Luther's 1534 translation of the Bible
  • An Armenian Bible, 17th century, illuminated by Malnazar
    An Armenian Bible, 17th century, illuminated by Malnazar
  • Fleeing Sodom and Gomorrah, Foster Bible, 19th century
    Fleeing Sodom and Gomorrah, Foster Bible, 19th century
  • Jonah being swallowed by the fish, Kennicott Bible, 1476
    Jonah being swallowed by the fish, Kennicott Bible, 1476

Gallery

انظر أيضاً

Notes

  1. ^ That is, the first year of a full translation (irrespective of containing the Apocrypha) having been published.
  2. ^ William Tyndale was stopped from translating all the books of the Old Testament due to his arrest in May 1535 and subsequent execution in October 1536.
  3. ^ The first complete publication of William Tyndale's New Testament took place in 1526.
  4. ^ The Douay–Rheims Bible was published in multiple volumes. The last volume of the Old Testament was published in 1610.

References

Footnotes

  1. ^ حركة أمة الإسلام، الديانات الجديدة
  2. ^ أ ب ت ث Lavidas 2021, p. 75.
  3. ^ Marcos 2000, p. 18.
  4. ^ Marcos 2000, p. 19.
  5. ^ Marcos 2000, p. 21.
  6. ^ أ ب Goshen-Gottstein 1979, p. 145.
  7. ^ أ ب VanderKam & Flint 2013, p. 87.
  8. ^ Lavidas 2021, p. 63.
  9. ^ Lavidas 2021, p. 29.
  10. ^ أ ب Lavidas 2021, p. 76.
  11. ^ أ ب Krauss 2017, pp. 105–106.
  12. ^ Kelly 2000, p. 55.
  13. ^ "The Bible". www.thelatinlibrary.com. Archived from the original on 13 January 2016. Retrieved 13 January 2017.
  14. ^ "Vulgate | Description, Definition, Bible, History, & Facts | Britannica". www.britannica.com (in الإنجليزية). Archived from the original on 13 March 2022. Retrieved 25 February 2022.
  15. ^ Lim 2017, p. 40; Hayes 2012, ch. 1; Brown 2010, Intro.; Carr 2010, pp. 3–5; Bandstra 2009, pp. 7–8, 480–481; Gravett et al. 2008, p. xv; Harris & Platzner 2008, pp. 3–4, 28, 371; Riches 2000, ch. 3.
  16. ^ Marcos 2000, pp. 322–323, 346–347.
  17. ^ Lavidas 2021, p. 30–31.
  18. ^ Lavidas 2021, p. 41.
  19. ^ Lavidas 2021, pp. 41–42.
  20. ^ Lavidas 2021, p. 31.
  21. ^ Lim 2017, pp. 40, 46, 49, 58–59; Hayes 2012, ch. 1; Brown 2010, Intro.; Carr 2010, pp. 3–5; Bandstra 2009, pp. 7–8, 480–481; Gravett et al. 2008, pp. xv, 49; Harris & Platzner 2008, pp. 3–4, 28, 31–32, 371; Riches 2000, ch. 3.
  22. ^ Sanneh & McClymond 2016, p. 265.
  23. ^ Sanneh & McClymond 2016, p. 279.
  24. ^ "2025 Global Scripture Access". Archived from the original on 13 October 2020. Retrieved 23 October 2025.
  25. ^ Caraher & Pettegrew 2019, p. 19.
  26. ^ Caraher & Pettegrew 2019, p. 11.
  27. ^ Mazar 2003, pp. 85–87.
  28. ^ أ ب Grabbe 2017, p. 36.
  29. ^ Davies 2000, p. 27.
  30. ^ Winn Leith 2022, p. 5.
  31. ^ Winn Leith 2022, p. 4.
  32. ^ Hoffmeier 1999, p. 53.
  33. ^ Dever 2003, p. 8.
  34. ^ Winn Leith 2022, p. 1.
  35. ^ Winn Leith 2022, p. 6.
  36. ^ Winn Leith 2022, p. 2.
  37. ^ Winn Leith 2022, pp. 2–3.
  38. ^ Phillips 2006, p. 365.
  39. ^ أ ب Phillips 2006, p. 366.
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  47. ^ Turner, Allan (31 August 2015). "Historic Bibles ?' even a naughty one ?' featured at Houston's Dunham Museum". Houston Chronicle. Archived from the original on 30 October 2020. Retrieved 10 February 2020.
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Works cited

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