المعرفة

شعبوية يمينية

Right-wing populism, also called national populism and right-wing nationalism,[1][2][3] is a political ideology which combines right-wing politics and populist rhetoric and themes. Its rhetoric employs anti-elitist sentiments, opposition to the Establishment, and speaking to and/or for the "common people". Recurring themes of right-wing populists include neo-nationalism, social conservatism, and economic nationalism.[4] Frequently, they aim to defend a national culture, identity, and economy against perceived attacks by outsiders.[5]

United States President Donald Trump with Brazil President Jair Bolsonaro, figures of right-wing populism.
المقالة بوضعها الحالي من شروحات و أمثلة لا تتناول القضية المعالجة بحيادية ثقافية أو جغرافية تمثل كافة الثقافات و العقائد.
رجاء حاول تطوير المقالة و قم بالنقاش في صفحة النقاش.


Right-wing populism in the Western world is generally associated with ideologies such as anti-environmentalism,[6] anti-globalization,[7][8] nativism,[7][9][10] and protectionism.[11] In Europe, the term is often used to describe groups, politicians, and political parties that are generally known for their opposition to immigration,[7][12] especially from the Muslim world,[7][13] and for Euroscepticism.[14] Right-wing populists may support expanding the welfare state, but only for those they deem are fit to receive it;[15] this concept has been referred to as "welfare chauvinism".[16][17][18]

From the 1990s, right-wing populist parties became established in the legislatures of various democracies. Although extreme right-wing movements in the United States (where they are normally referred to as the "radical right") are usually characterized as a separate entity, some writers consider them to be a part of a broader, right-wing populist phenomenon.[19]

Since the Great Recession,[20][21][22] European right-wing populist movements such as the National Rally (formerly the National Front) in France, the League in Italy, the Party for Freedom and the Forum for Democracy in the Netherlands, the Finns Party, the Sweden Democrats, Danish People's Party, the Freedom Party of Austria, the UK Independence Party and the Brexit Party began to grow in popularity,[23][24] in large part due to increasing opposition to immigration from the Middle East and Africa, rising Euroscepticism and discontent with the economic policies of the European Union.[25] American businessman and media personality Donald Trump won the 2016 United States presidential election after running on a platform that included right-wing populist themes.[26]

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Definition

Right wing populism is an ideology that primarily espouses neo-nationalism, social conservatism, and economic nationalism.[27]

Cas Mudde argues that two definitions can be given of the "populist radical right": a maximum and a minimum one, with the "maximum" group being a subgroup of the "minimum" group. The minimum definition describes what Michael Freeden has called the "core concept"[أ] of the right-wing populist ideology, that is the concept shared by all parties generally included in the family. Looking at the primary literature, Mudde concludes that the core concept of right-populism "is undoubtedly the "nation". "This concept", he explains, "also certainly functions as a "coat-hanger" for most other ideological features. Consequently, the minimum definition of the party family should be based on the key concept, the nation". He however rejects the use of "nationalism" as a "core ideology" of right-wing populism on the ground that there are also purely "civic" or "liberal" forms of nationalism, preferring instead the term "nativism": a xenophobic form of nationalism asserting that "states should be inhabited exclusively by members of the native group ("the nation"), and that non-native elements (persons and ideas) are fundamentally threatening to the homogeneous nation-state". Mudde further argues that "while nativism could include racist arguments, it can also be non-racist (including and excluding on the basis of culture or even religion)", and that the term nativism does not reduce the parties to mere single-issue parties, such as the term "anti-immigrant" does. In the maximum definition, to nativism is added authoritarianism—an attitude, not necessary anti-democratic or automatic, to prefer "law and order" and the submission to authority[ب]—and populism—a "thin-centered ideology that considers society to be ultimately separated into two homogeneous and antagonistic groups, "the pure people" versus "the corrupt elite", and which argues that politics should be an expression of the "general will of the people", if needed before human rights or constitutional guarantees.[ت][28] Cas Mudde and Cristóbal Rovira Kaltwasser reiterated in 2017 that within European right-wing populism there is a "marriage of convenience" of populism based on an "ethnic and chauvinistic definition of the people", authoritarianism, and nativism. This results in right-wing populism having a "xenophobic nature."[29]

Roger Eatwell, Emeritus Professor of Comparative Politics at the University of Bath, writes that "whilst populism and fascism differ notably ideologically, in practice the latter has borrowed aspects of populist discourse and style, and populism can degenerate into leader-oriented authoritarian and exclusionary politics."[30] For populism to transition into fascism or proto-fascism, it requires a "nihilistic culture and an intractable crisis."[31]

[P]opulism is like fascism in being a response to liberal and socialist explanations of the political. And also like fascism, populism does not recognize a legitimate political place for an opposition that it regards as acting against the desires of the people and that it also accuses of being tyrannical, conspiratorial, and antidemocratic. ... The opponents are turned into public enemies, but only rhetorically. If populism moves from rhetorical enmity to practices of enemy identification and persecution, we could be talking about its transformation into fascism or another form of dictatorial repression. This has happened in the past ... and without question it could happen in the future. This morphing of populism back into fascism is always a possibility, but it is very uncommon, and when it does happen, and populism becomes fully antidemocratic, it is no longer populism.[32]

In summary, Erik Berggren and Andres Neergard wrote in 2015 that "[m]ost researchers agree [...] that xenophobia, anti-immigration sentiments, nativism, ethno-nationalism are, in different ways, central elements in the ideologies, politics, and practices of right-wing populism and Extreme Right Wing Parties."[33] Similarly, historian Rick Shenkman describes the ideology presented by right-wing populism as "a deadly mix of xenophobia, racism, and authoritarianism."[34] Tamir Bar-On also concluded in 2018 that the literature generally places "nativism" or "ethnic nationalism" as the core concept of the ideology, which "implicitly posits a politically dominant group, while minorities are conceived as threats to the nation". It is "generally, but not necessarily racist";[35] in the case of the Dutch PVV for instance, "a religious [minority, i.e. Muslims] instead of an ethnic minority constitutes the main 'enemy'".[36]

Scholars use terminology inconsistently, sometimes referring to right-wing populism as "radical right"[37] or other terms such as new nationalism.[38] Pippa Norris noted that "standard reference works use alternate typologies and diverse labels categorising parties as 'far' or 'extreme' right, 'new right', 'anti-immigrant' or 'neofascist', 'antiestablishment', 'national populist', 'protest', 'ethnic', 'authoritarian', 'antigovernment', 'antiparty', 'ultranationalist', 'right-libertarian' and so on".[39]


Motivations and methods

To Roger Eatwell and Matthew Goodwin, "national populists prioritize the culture and interests of the nation, and promise to give voice to a people who feel that they have been neglected, even held in contempt, by distant and often corrupt elites." They are part, Eatwell and Goodwin follow, of a "growing revolt against mainstream politics and liberal values. This challenge is in general not anti-democratic. Rather, national populists are opposed to certain aspects of liberal democracy as it has evolved in the West. [...] [Their] "direct" conception of democracy differs from the "liberal" one that has flourished across the West following the defeat of fascism and which has gradually become more elitist in character." Furthermore, national populists question what they call the "erosion of the nation-state", "hyper ethnic change" and the "capacity to rapidly absorb [high] rates of immigration", the "highly unequal societies" of the West's current economic settlement, and are suspicious of "cosmopolitan and globalizing agendas".[3] Populist parties use crisis in their domestic governments to enhance anti-globalist reactions; these include refrainment towards trade and anti-immigration policies. The support for these ideologies commonly comes from people whose employment might have low occupational mobility. This makes them more likely to develop an anti-immigrant and anti-globalization mentality that aligns with the ideals of the populist party.[40]

Jean-Yves Camus and Nicolas Lebourg see "national populism" as an attempt to combine socio-economical values of the left and political values of the right, and the support for a referendary republic that would bypass traditional political divisions and institutions. As they aim at a unity of the political (the demos), ethnic (the ethnos) and social (the working class) interpretations of the "people", national populists claim to defend the "average citizen" and "common sense", against the "betrayal of inevitably corrupt elites".[41] As Front National ideologue François Duprat put in the 1970s, inspired by the Latin American right of that time, right-populism aims to constitute a "national, social, and popular" ideology. If populism itself is shared by both left and right parties, their premises are indeed different in that right-wing populists perceive society as in a state of decadence, from which "only the healthy common people can free the nation by forming one national class from the different social classes and casting aside the corrupt elites".[42]

Methodologically, by co-opting concepts from the left – such as multiculturalism and ethnopluralism, which is espoused by the left as a means of preserving minority ethnic cultures within a pluralistic society – and then jettisoning their non-hierarchical essence, right-wing populists are able to, in the words of sociologist Jens Rydgren, "mobilize on xenophobic and racist public opinions without being stigmatized as racists."[43] Sociologist Hande Eslen-Ziya argues that right-wing populist movements rely on "troll science," namely "(distorted) scientific arguments moulded into populist discourse" that creates an alternative narrative.[44]

History

Europe

European right-wing populism can be traced back to the period 1870–1900 in the aftermath of the Franco-Prussian War, with the nascence of two different trends in Germany and France: the Völkisch movement and Boulangism.[45] Völkischen represented a romantic nationalist, racialist, and from the 1900s antisemitic tendency in German society, as they idealized a bio-mystical "original nation", that still could be found in their views in the rural regions, a form of "primitive democracy freely subjected to their natural elites".[46][45] In France, the anti-parliamentarian Ligue des Patriotes, led by Boulanger, Déroulède and Barrès, called for a "plebiscitary republic", with the president elected by universal suffrage, and the popular will expressed not through elected representatives (the "corrupted elites"), but rather via "legislative plebiscites", another name for referendums.[45] It also evolved to antisemitism after the Dreyfus affair (1894).[47]

Modern national populism—what Pierro Ignazi called "post-industrial parties"[48]—emerged in the 1970s, in a dynamic sustained by voters' rejection of the welfare state and of the tax system, both deemed "confiscatory"; the rise of xenophobia against the backdrop of immigration which, because originating from outside Europe, was considered to be of a new kind; and finally, the end of the prosperity that had reigned since the post–World War II era, symbolized by the oil crisis of 1973. Two precursor parties consequently appeared in the early 1970s: the Progress Party, ancestor of the Danish People's Party; and the Anders Lange's Party in Norway.[41]

A new wave of right-wing populism arose in the aftermath of the September 11 attacks. "Neo-populists" are nationalist and Islamophobic politicians who aspire "to be the champions of freedoms for minorities (gays, Jews, women) against the Arab-Muslim masses"; a trend first embodied by the Dutch Pim Fortuyn List, and later followed by Geert Wilders' Party for Freedom and Marine Le Pen's National Rally. According to Jean-Yves Camus and Nicolas Lebourg, those parties are however not a real syncretism of the left and right, as both their ideology and voter base are interclassist.[ث][49] Furthermore, neo-populist parties went from a critique of the welfare state to that of multiculturalism, and their priority demand remains the reduction of immigration.[50][51]

Political scientist and professor Matthew Goodwin has argued that the growth of European right-wing populist parties has sometimes depended on the country or region they have been founded in, and that the public in some European nations such as Spain, Germany and Sweden initially had an aversion to nationalist forces in the late twentieth century, either due to their political histories concerning World War Two, having codes of neutrality and maintaining better economic stability compared to other nations. However, parties in these countries that have been founded since the turn of the century have performed well in elections due to not having past stigma associated with fascist and antisemitic beliefs, and have mobilized on concerns felt by voters over non-Western immigration, Islam, terrorism, loss of national identity or sovereignty, and beliefs that the political establishment has ignored concerns felt by ordinary people. Goodwin has also opined that political commentators have misjudged voters' concerns as solely related to economic fears and not cultural issues, and that right-wing populists have scored ideological victories by not just performing well in elections but pressuring mainstream parties into adopting similar policies to win back voters.[52][53]

Contemporary movements by country

Piero Ignazi divided right-wing populist parties, which he called "extreme right parties", into two categories: he placed traditional right-wing parties that had developed out of the historical right and post-industrial parties that had developed independently. He placed the British National Party, the National Democratic Party of Germany, the German People's Union and the former Dutch Centre Party in the first category, whose prototype would be the disbanded Italian Social Movement; whereas he placed the French National Front, the German Republicans, the Dutch Centre Democrats, the former Belgian Vlaams Blok (which would include certain aspects of traditional extreme right parties), the Danish Progress Party, the Norwegian Progress Party and the Freedom Party of Austria in the second category.[48][54]

Right-wing populist parties in the English-speaking world include the UK Independence Party and Australia's One Nation.[55] The U.S. Republican Party and Conservative Party of Canada include right-wing populist factions.


. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Americas

Brazil

 
Brazilian President Jair Bolsonaro with U.S. President Donald Trump in March 2019

In Brazil, right-wing populism began to rise roughly around the time Dilma Rousseff won the 2014 presidential election.[56] In the Brazilian general election of 2014, Levy Fidelix, from the Brazilian Labour Renewal Party[57] presented himself with a conservative speech and, according to him, the only right-wing candidate. He spoke for traditional family values and opposed abortion, legalization of marijuana, same-sex marriage and proposed homosexual individuals to be treated far away from the good citizens' and workers' families.[58] In the first round of the general election, Fidelix received 446,878 votes, representing 0.43% of the popular vote.[59] Fidelix ranked 7th out of 11 candidates. In the second round, Fidelix supported candidate Aécio Neves.[60]

In addition, according to the political analyst of the Inter-Union Department of Parliamentary Advice Antônio Augusto de Queiroz the National Congress elected in 2014 may be considered the most conservative since the "re-democratization" movement, noting an increase in the number of parliamentarians linked to more conservative segments, such as ruralists, the military, the police and the religious right. The subsequent economic crisis of 2015 and investigations of corruption scandals led to a right-wing movement that sought to rescue fiscally and socially conservative ideas from in opposition to the left-wing policies of the Workers' Party. At the same time, right-libertarians such as those that make up the Free Brazil Movement emerged among many others. For Manheim (1952), within a single real generation there may be several generations which he called "differentiated and antagonistic". For him, it is not the common birth date that marks a generation, though it matters, but rather the historical moment in which they live in common. In the case, the historical moment was the impeachment of Dilma Rousseff. They can be called the "post-Dilma generation".[61]

Centrist interim President Michel Temer took office following the impeachment of President Rousseff. Temer held 3% approval ratings in October 2017,[62] facing a corruption scandal after accusations for obstructing justice and racketeering were placed against him.[63] He managed to avoid trial thanks to the support of the right-wing parties in the Brazilian Congress.[62][63] On the other hand, President of the Senate Renan Calheiros, who was acknowledged as one of the key figures behind Rousseff's destitution and member of the Centrist Brazilian Democratic Movement Party, was himself removed from office after facing embezzlement charges.[64]

In March 2016, after entering the Social Christian Party, far-right congressman Jair Bolsonaro decided to run for President of the Republic. In 2017, he tried to become the presidential nominee of Patriota, but, eventually, Bolsonaro entered the Party[65] and, supported by the Brazilian Labour Renewal Party, he won the 2018 presidential election followed by left-wing former Mayor of São Paulo Fernando Haddad of Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva's Workers' Party.[66][67][68] Lula was banned to run after being convicted on criminal corruption charges and being imprisoned.[69][70] Bolsonaro has been accused of racist,[71] xenophobic,[72] misogynistic[73] and homophobic rhetoric. His campaign was centered on opposition to crime, political corruption, LGBT identity and support for tax cuts, militarism, Catholicism and Evangelicalism.[74][75]

Canada

Canada has a history of right-wing populist protest parties and politicians, most notably in Western Canada partly due to the idea of Western alienation. The highly successful Social Credit Party of Canada consistently won seats in British Columbia, Alberta, and Saskatchewan, but fell into obscurity by the 1970s.

In the late 1980s, the Reform Party of Canada led by Preston Manning became another right-wing populist movement formed as a result of the policies of the centre-right Progressive Conservative Party of Canada which alienated many Blue Tories and led to a feeling of neglect in the West of Canada. Initially motivated by a single-issue desire to give a voice to Western Canada, the Reform Party subsequently expanded its platform to include a blend of socially conservative and right-wing populist policies. It grew from a fringe party into a major political force in the 1990s and became the official opposition party before reforming itself as the Canadian Alliance. The Alliance ultimately merged with the Progressive Conservative Party to form the modern day Conservative Party of Canada, after which the Alliance faction dropped some of its populist and socially conservative ideas.

In recent years, right-wing populist elements have existed within the Conservative Party of Canada and mainstream provincial parties, and have most notably been espoused by Ontario MP Kellie Leitch; businessman Kevin O'Leary; Quebec Premier François Legault; the former Mayor of Toronto, Rob Ford; and his brother, Ontario Premier Doug Ford.[76][77][78][79]

In August 2018, Conservative MP Maxime Bernier left the party, and the following month he founded the People's Party of Canada, which has been described as a "right of centre, populist" movement. Bernier lost his seat in the 2019 Canadian elections and the People's Party scored just above 1% of the vote, however in the 2021 election it saw an improved performance and climbed to nearly 5% of the popular vote.[80]

Costa Rica

In the 2018 political campaign, both Evangelical Christian candidate Fabricio Alvarado[81][82] and right-wing anti-establishment candidate Juan Diego Castro[83][84] were described as examples of right-wing populists.


. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

United States

قالب:Update section Early antecedents of right-wing populism which existed in the USA during the 1800s include the Anti-Masonic and Know-Nothing Parties. The Populist Party (which existed in the 1890s) was a primarily left-wing populist movement.[بحاجة لمصدر]

Moore (1996) argues that "populist opposition to the growing power of political, economic, and cultural elites" helped shape "conservative and right-wing movements" since the 1920s.[85] Historical right-wing populist figures in both major parties in the United States have included Thomas E. Watson, Strom Thurmond, Joe McCarthy, Barry Goldwater, George Wallace and Pat Buchanan.[86]

The Tea Party movement has been characterized as "a right-wing anti-systemic populist movement" by Rasmussen and Schoen (2010). They add: "Today our country is in the midst of a...new populist revolt that has emerged overwhelmingly from the right – manifesting itself as the Tea Party movement".[87] In 2010, David Barstow wrote in The New York Times: "The Tea Party movement has become a platform for conservative populist discontent".[88] Some political figures closely associated with the Tea Party, such as U.S. Senator Ted Cruz and former U.S. Representative Ron Paul, have been described as appealing to right-wing populism.[89][90][91] In the U.S. House of Representatives, the Freedom Caucus, which is associated with the Tea Party movement, has been described as right-wing populist.[92][93]

Donald Trump's 2016 presidential campaign, noted for its anti-establishment, anti-immigration and anti-free trade rhetoric, was characterized as that of a right-wing populist.[94][95] The ideology of Trump's former Chief Strategist, Steve Bannon, has also been described as such.[96]

Asia-Pacific countries

Australia

 
Pauline Hanson, leader of One Nation

The main right-wing populist party in Australia is One Nation, led by Pauline Hanson, Senator for Queensland.[97] One Nation typically supports the opposition Coalition.[98]

Other parties formerly represented in the Australian Parliament with right-wing populist elements and rhetoric include the Australian Conservatives, led by Cory Bernardi, Senator for South Australia,[99] David Leyonhjelm, Senator for New South Wales,[100] and Katter's Australian Party, led by Queensland MP Bob Katter.[101][102]

Some figures within the Coalition, have been described as right-wing populists, including former Prime Minister Tony Abbott[103] and Opposition Leader Peter Dutton.[104]

Japan

Former Prime Ministers Shinzo Abe, former Prime Ministers Junichiro Koizumi, current Tokyo governors Yuriko Koike, former Tokyo governors Shintaro Ishihara and former Osaka mayors Tōru Hashimoto, have been characterized as right-wing nationalists and populists. For example, in a speech to LDP lawmakers in Tokyo on 8 March 2019, Steve Bannon said that “Prime Minister Abe is a great hero to the grassroots, the populist, and the nationalist movement throughout the world.”[105]

In addition, Netto-uyoku, Zaitokukai and Japan First Party are evaluated as similar to Western far-right populism and alt-right movement.[106]

New Zealand

المقالة الرئيسية: Populism in New Zealand

Pakistan

The recent wave of right-wing populism is in Pakistan in the form of Pakistan Tehreek Insaaf (PTI).[107] Its leader Imran Khan has furiously attacked traditional politicians and made people believe that only he has the solutions.[107] British journalist Ben Judah, in an interview, compared Imran Khan with Donald Trump on his populist rhetoric.[108]

South Korea

 
Hong Jun-pyo, former leader of LKP

Conservatism in South Korea has traditionally been more inclined toward elitism than populism. However, since the 2016 South Korean political scandal, Korean conservative forces have changed their political lines to populism as the distrust of the elite spread among the Korean public.[109]

Hong Joon-pyo and Lee Un-ju of the United Future Party are leading right-wing populists advocating anti-homosexuality, anti-immigration and social conservatism.[110][111] Yoon Seok-youl, a candidate for the PPP in the 2022 South Korean presidential election, is also criticized as a "populist" for using hostile sentiment toward feminism and proposing unrealistic economic policies.[112]

South Korean right-wing populists show a revisionist view of Gwangju Uprising, and insist that the impeachment of former President Park Geun-hye is wrong, stimulating conservative public nostalgia for the Park Chung-hee administration.[113] It also shows a radical anti-North Korea, anti-Chinese and anti-communist stance.[114]

Taiwan

Taiwan's right-wing populists tend to deny the independent identity of their country's 'Taiwan' and emphasize their identity as a 'Republic of China'. Taiwan's left-wing Taiwanese nationalists have strong pro-American tendencies, so Taiwan's major and minor conservatives are critical of this.[115] In particular, Taiwan's right-wing populists demand that economic growth Issues and right-wing Chinese nationalist issues be more important than liberal democracy, and that they become closer to the People's Republic of China. One of Taiwan's leading right-wing populists is Terry Gou, Han Kuo-yu and Chang Ya-chung.[116][117][118]

European countries

المقالة الرئيسية: Radical right (Europe)

Senior European Union diplomats cite growing anxiety in Europe about Russian financial support for far-right and populist movements and told the Financial Times that the intelligence agencies of "several" countries had stepped up scrutiny of possible links with Moscow.[119] In 2016, the Czech Republic warned that Russia tries to "divide and conquer" the European Union by supporting right-wing populist politicians across the bloc.[120] However, as there in the United States of America, there seems to be an underlying problem that isn't massively discussed in the media. That underlying problem is that of housing. A 2019 study shows an immense correlation between the price of housing and voting for populist parties.[121] In that study, it was revealed that the French citizens that saw the price of their houses stagnate or drop, were much more likely to vote for Marine Le Pen in the 2017 French presidential election. Whereas those that the price of their house rise, were much more likely to vote for Emmanuel Macron. The same pattern emerged in the 2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum, in which those that saw the price of their house rise, voted to Remain. Whereas those that saw it flatline or drop, voted to Leave.

Austria

The Austrian Freedom Party (FPÖ) established in 1955 claims to represent a "Third Camp" (Drittes Lager), beside the Socialist Party and the social Catholic Austrian People's Party. It succeeded the Federation of Independents founded after World War II, adopting the pre-war heritage of German nationalism, although it did not advocate Nazism and placed itself in the political centre. Though it did not gain much popularity for decades, it exercised considerable balance of power by supporting several federal governments, be it right-wing or left-wing, e.g. the Socialist Kreisky cabinet of 1970 (see Kreisky–Peter–Wiesenthal affair).

 
Heinz-Christian Strache, former leader of the Freedom Party of Austria and Vice-Chancellor of Austria

From 1980, the Freedom Party adopted a more moderate stance. Upon the 1983 federal election, it entered a coalition government with the Socialist Party, whereby party chairman Norbert Steger served as Vice-Chancellor. The liberal interlude however ended, when Jörg Haider was elected chairman in 1986. By his down-to-earth manners and patriotic attitude, Haider re-integrated the party's nationalist base voters. Nevertheless, he was also able to obtain votes from large sections of population disenchanted with politics by publicly denouncing corruption and nepotism of the Austrian Proporz system. The electoral success was boosted by Austria's accession to the European Union in 1995.

Upon the 1999 federal election, the Freedom Party (FPÖ) with 26.9% of the votes cast became the second strongest party in the National Council parliament. Having entered a coalition government with the People's Party, Haider had to face the disability of several FPÖ ministers, but also the impossibility of agitation against members of his own cabinet. In 2005, he finally countered the FPÖ's loss of reputation by the Alliance for the Future of Austria (BZÖ) relaunch in order to carry on his government. The remaining FPÖ members elected Heinz-Christian Strache chairman, but since the 2006 federal election both right-wing parties have run separately. After Haider was killed in a car accident in 2008, the BZÖ has lost a measurable amount of support.

The FPÖ regained much of its support in subsequent elections. Its candidate Norbert Hofer made it into the runoff in the 2016 presidential election, though he narrowly lost the election. After the 2017 legislative elections, the FPÖ formed a government coalition with the Austrian People's Party, but lost seats in 2019.

Belgium

 
Flag used by the now-defunct Vlaams Blok

Vlaams Blok, established in 1978, operated on a platform of law and order, anti-immigration (with particular focus on Islamic immigration) and secession of the Flanders region of the country. The secession was originally planned to end in the annexation of Flanders by the culturally and linguistically similar Netherlands until the plan was abandoned due to the multiculturalism in that country. In the elections to the Flemish Parliament in June 2004, the party received 24.2% of the vote, within less than 2% of being the largest party.[122] However, in November of the same year, the party was ruled illegal under the country's anti-racism law for, among other things, advocating segregated schools for citizens and immigrants.[123]

In less than a week, the party was re-established under the name Vlaams Belang, initially with a near-identical ideology before moderating parts of its statute. It advocates the adoption of the Flemish culture and language by immigrants who wish to stay in the country. It also calls for a zero tolerance stance on illegal immigration and the reinstatement of border controls.[124] Despite some accusations of antisemitism from Belgium's Jewish population, the party has demonstrated a staunch pro-Israel stance as part of its opposition to Islam.[125] In Antwerp, sections of the city's significant Jewish population have begun to support the party.[126] With 23 of 124 seats, Vlaams Belang leads the opposition in the Flemish Parliament[127] and it also holds 11 out of the 150 seats in the Belgian House of Representatives.[128]

The Flemish nationalist and conservative liberal N-VA party has been described as populist or containing right-wing populist elements by foreign media such as the German Die Zeit magazine, however the party itself has rebutted the term and does not label itself as such.[129]

In the French-speaking Walloon region, Mischaël Modrikamen, an associate of Steve Bannon, was chairman of the Parti Populaire (PP), which contested elections in Wallonia. Political analysts have generally observed that right-wing populist parties tend to perform better with the Flemish electorate over French speaking Belgian voters on the whole, owing to the Flemish vote moving to the right in recent decades and Flemish parties intertwining Flemish nationalism with other issues.[66]

As of the 2019 federal, regional and European elections Vlaams Belang (VB) has surged from 248,843 votes in 2014 to 783,977 votes on 26 May 2019.[130]

Bulgaria

There are several right-wing populist parties in Bulgaria, including IMRO-BNM, National Front for the Salvation of Bulgaria and Attack. For the 2017 Bulgarian parliamentary election they formed the United Patriots electoral alliance, which won 27 seats in Parliament. United Patriots entered a coalition with GERB to form the Third Borisov Government. Volya, another right-wing populist party with 12 seats in Parliament also supported the government.

Following the 2021 Bulgarian general election another right-wing populist party Revival entered Parliament, while IMRO-BNM, NFSB, Attack and Volya failed to win any seats.

Cyprus

The ELAM (National People's Front) (Εθνικό Λαϊκό Μέτωπο) was formed in 2008.[131] Its platform includes advocating for Unification with Greece, opposition to further European integration, immigration and the status quo that remains due to Turkey's invasion of a third of the island (and the international community's lack of intention to solve the issue).[بحاجة لمصدر]

Denmark

In the early 1970s, the home of the strongest right-wing-populist party in Europe was in Denmark, the Progress Party.[132] In the 1973 election, it received almost 16% of the vote.[133] In the following years, its support dwindled away, but was replaced by the Danish People's Party in the 1990s, which has gone on to be an important support party for the governing coalition in the 2000s (decade).[134] The Danish People's Party is the largest and most influential right-wing populist party in Denmark today. It won 37 seats in the 2015 Danish general election[135] and became the second largest party in Denmark. The Danish People's Party advocates immigration reductions, particularly from non-Western countries, favor cultural assimilation of first generation migrants into Danish society and are opposed to Denmark becoming a multicultural society.

Additionally, the Danish People's Party's stated goals are to enforce a strict rule of law, to maintain a strong welfare system for those in need, to promote economic growth by strengthening education and encouraging people to work and in favor of protecting the environment.[136] In 2015, The New Right was founded,[137] and have 4 seats in the current Folketing.

Finland

In Finland the main right-wing party is the Finns Party. Together with National Coalition and Centre-Party, it formed the government coalition after the 2015 parliamentary election. In 2017 the governmental branch broke off to form the Blue Reform, which took the coalition position from the Finns Party. Blue Reform is currently in government coalition and the Finns Party in opposition and are the fastest growing party in Finland.[138] In 2018 a Finnish member of the parliament Paavo Väyrynen formed the Seven Star Movement. The party is anti-immigration but is in center in economic politics.

France

انظر أيضاً: Gaullism
 
Marine Le Pen, leader of the National Front and 2017 presidential candidate

Gaullism is considered part of (right-wing) populism because it is based on charisma, popular mobilization French nationalism and exceptionalism. Gaullism is deeply embedded in modern right-wing politics in France.[139][140]

France's National Front (NF) – renamed in 2018 as the "National Rally" – has been cited the "prototypical populist radical right-wing party".[29] The party was founded in 1972 by Jean-Marie Le Pen as the unification of a number of French nationalist movements of the time, it was developed by him into a well-organized party.[29] After struggling for a decade, the party reached its first peak in 1984. By 2002, Le Pen received more votes than the Socialist candidate in the first round of voting for the French presidency, becoming the first NF candidate to qualify for a presidential run-off election. After Le Pen's daughter, Marine Le Pen, took over as the head of the party in 2011, the National Front established itself as one of the main political parties in France. Marine Le Pen's policy of "de-demonizing", or normalizing the party resulted in her father, Jean-Marie Le Pen, being first suspended and then ejected from the party in 2015. Marine Le Pen finished second in the 2017 election and lost in the second round of voting versus Emmanuel Macron which was held on 7 May 2017. However, polls published in 2018 showed that a majority of the French population consider the party to be a threat to democracy.[141]

Hungary

 
Viktor Orbán (Fidesz-KDNP), the incumbent Prime Minister of Hungary

The 2018 Hungarian parliamentary election result was a victory for the Fidesz–KDNP alliance, preserving its two-thirds majority, with Viktor Orbán remaining Prime Minister. Orbán and Fidesz campaigned primarily on the issues of immigration and foreign meddling, and the election was seen as a victory for right-wing populism in Europe.[بحاجة لمصدر]

Germany

 
The Alternative for Germany is a political party that was founded in 2013 and is now led by Jörg Meuthen and Alexander Gauland, being Germany's leading right-wing populist party

Since 2013, the most popular right-wing populist party in Germany has been Alternative for Germany which managed to finish third in the 2017 German federal election, making it the first right-wing populist party to enter the Bundestag, Germany's national parliament. Before, right-wing populist parties had gained seats in German State Parliaments only. Left-wing populism is represented in the Bundestag by The Left party.

On a regional level, right-wing populist movements like Pro NRW and Citizens in Rage (Bürger in Wut, BIW) sporadically attract some support. In 1989, The Republicans (Die Republikaner) led by Franz Schönhuber entered the Abgeordnetenhaus of Berlin and achieved more than 7% of the German votes cast in the 1989 European election, with six seats in the European Parliament. The party also won seats in the Landtag of Baden-Württemberg twice in 1992 and 1996, but after 2000 the Republicans' support eroded in favour of the far-right German People's Union and the Neo-Nazi National Democratic Party of Germany (NPD), which in the 2009 federal election held 1.5% of the popular vote (winning up to 9% in regional Landtag parliamentary elections).

In 2005, a nationwide Pro Germany Citizens' Movement (pro Deutschland) was founded in Cologne. The Pro Germany movement appears as a conglomerate of numerous small parties, voters' associations and societies, distinguishing themselves by campaigns against extremism[142] and immigrants. Its representatives claim a zero tolerance policy and the combat of corruption. With the denial of a multiethnic society (Überfremdung) and the islamization, their politics extend to far-right positions. Other minor right-wing populist parties include the German Freedom Party founded in 2010, the former East German German Social Union (DSU) and the dissolved Party for a Rule of Law Offensive ("Schill party").

Greece

 
Panos Kammenos, leader of Independent Greeks and Greek Minister for National Defence

The most prominent right-wing populist party in Greece is the Independent Greeks (ANEL).[143][144] Despite being smaller than the more extreme Golden Dawn party, after the January 2015 legislative elections ANEL formed a governing coalition with the left-wing Coalition of the Radical Left (SYRIZA), thus making the party a governing party and giving it a place in the Cabinet of Alexis Tsipras.[145]

The Golden Dawn has grown significantly in Greece during the country's economic downturn, gaining 7% of the vote and 18 out of 300 seats in the Hellenic Parliament. The party's ideology includes annexation of territory in Albania and Turkey, including the Turkish cities of Istanbul and Izmir.[146] Controversial measures by the party included a poor people's kitchen in Athens which only supplied to Greek citizens and was shut down by the police.[147]

The Popular Orthodox Rally is not represented in the Greek legislature, but supplied 2 of the country's 22 MEPS until 2014. It supports anti-globalisation and lower taxes for small businesses as well as opposition to Turkish accession to the European Union and the Republic of Macedonia's use of the name Macedonia as well as immigration only for Europeans.[148] Its participation in government has been one of the reasons why it became unpopular with its voters who turned to Golden Dawn in Greece's 2012 elections.[149]

Italy

انظر أيضاً: Berlusconism
 
Silvio Berlusconi, leader of the liberal-conservative Forza Italia and former Prime Minister of Italy.

In Italy, the most prominent right-wing populist party is Lega, formerly Lega Nord (Northern League),[150] whose leaders reject the right-wing label,[151][152][153] though not the "populist" one.[154] The League is a federalist, regionalist and sometimes secessionist party, founded in 1991 as a federation of several regional parties of Northern and Central Italy, most of which had arisen and expanded during the 1980s. LN's program advocates the transformation of Italy into a federal state, fiscal federalism and greater regional autonomy, especially for the Northern regions. At times, the party has advocated for the secession of the North, which it calls Padania. The party generally takes an anti-Southern Italian stance as members are known for opposing Southern Italian emigration to Northern Italian cities, stereotyping Southern Italians as welfare abusers and detrimental to Italian society and attributing Italy's economic troubles and the disparity of the North-South divide in the Italian economy to supposed inherent negative characteristics of the Southern Italians, such as laziness, lack of education or criminality.[155][156][157][158] Certain LN members have been known to publicly deploy the offensive slur "terrone", a common pejorative term for Southern Italians that is evocative of negative Southern Italian stereotypes.[155][156][159] As a federalist, regionalist, populist party of the North, LN is also highly critical of the centralized power and political importance of Rome, sometimes adopting to a lesser extent an anti-Roman stance in addition to an anti-Southern stance.

With the rise of immigration into Italy since the late 1990s, LN has increasingly turned its attention to criticizing mass immigration to Italy. The LN, which also opposes illegal immigration, is critical of Islam and proposes Italy's exit from the Eurozone, is considered a Eurosceptic movement and as such is apart of the Identity and Democracy(ID) group in the European Parliament. LN was or is part of the national government in 1994, 2001–2006, 2008–2011 and 2018–2019. Most recently, the party, which notably includes among its members the Presidents of Lombardy and Veneto, won 17.4% of the vote in the 2018 general election, becoming the third-largest party in Italy (largest within the centre-right coalition). In the 2014 European election, under the leadership of Matteo Salvini it took 6.2% of votes. Under Salvini, the party has to some extent embraced Italian nationalism and emphasised Euroscepticism, opposition to immigration and other "populist" policies, while forming an alliance with right-wing populist parties in Europe.[160][161][162] LN is now the first party in Italy, followed by Meloni's party Brothers of Italy, which is also a Right-wing populist party.[163]

Silvio Berlusconi, leader of Forza Italia and Prime Minister of Italy from 1994–1995, 2001–2006 and 2008–2011, has sometimes been described as a right-wing populist, although his party is not typically described as such.[164][165]

A number of national conservative, nationalist and arguably right-wing populist parties are strong especially in Lazio, the region around Rome and Southern Italy. Most of them originated as a result of the Italian Social Movement (a national-conservative party, whose best result was 8.7% of the vote in the 1972 general election) and its successor National Alliance (which reached 15.7% of the vote in 1996 general election). They include the Brothers of Italy (4.4% in 2018), New Force (0.3%), CasaPound (0.1%), Tricolour Flame (0.1%), Social Idea Movement (0.01%) and Progetto Nazionale (0.01%).

Additionally, in the German-speaking South Tyrol the local second-largest party, Die Freiheitlichen, is often described as a right-wing populist party.

Netherlands

 
Geert Wilders, leader of the Party for Freedom

In the Netherlands, right-wing populism was represented in the 150-seat House of Representatives in 1982, when the Centre Party won a single seat. During the 1990s, a splinter party, the Centre Democrats, was slightly more successful, although its significance was still marginal. Not before 2002 did a right-wing populist party break through in the Netherlands, when the Pim Fortuyn List (LPF) won 26 seats and subsequently formed a coalition with the Christian Democratic Appeal (CDA) and People's Party for Freedom and Democracy (VVD). Fortuyn, who had strong views against immigration, particularly by Muslims, was assassinated in May 2002, two weeks before the election. Ideologically, the LPF differed somewhat compared to other European right-wing populist movements by holding more liberal stances on certain social issues such as abortion, gay rights and euthanasia, (Fortuyn himself was openly gay), while maintaining a strict stand on immigration, law and order and the European Union. Fortuyn was also credited with shifting the Dutch political landscape by bringing the topics of multiculturalism, immigration and the integration of immigrants into the political mainstream.[166] However, the coalition had broken up by 2003, and the LPF went into steep decline until it was dissolved.

Since 2006, the Party for Freedom (PVV) has been represented in the House of Representatives and has been described as inheriting the mantle of the Pim Fortuyn List. Following the 2010 general election, it has been in a pact with the right-wing minority government of CDA and VVD after it won 24 seats in the House of Representatives. The party is Eurosceptic and plays a leading role in the changing stance of the Dutch government towards European integration as they came second in the 2009 European Parliament election, winning 4 out of 25 seats. The party's main programme revolves around strong criticism of Islam, restrictions on migration from new European Union countries and Islamic countries, pushing for cultural assimilation of migrants into Dutch society, opposing the accession of Turkey to the European Union, advocating for the Netherlands to withdraw from the European Union and advocating for a return to the guilder through ending Dutch usage of the euro.[167]

The PVV withdrew its support for the First Rutte cabinet in 2012 after refusing to support austerity measures. This triggered the 2012 general election in which the PVV was reduced to 15 seats and excluded from the new government.

In the 2017 Dutch general election, Wilders' PVV gained an extra five seats to become the second largest party in the Dutch House of Representatives, bringing their total to 20 seats.[168]

From 2017 onwards, the Forum for Democracy (FvD) has emerged as another right-wing populist force in the Netherlands. The FvD also advocates a stricter immigration policy and a referendum on Dutch membership of the EU.[169][170]

Poland

 
Poland's Law and Justice (PiS) leader Jarosław Kaczyński with Hungarian Prime Minister Viktor Orbán[171]

The largest right-wing populist party in Poland is Law and Justice, which currently holds both the presidency and a governing majority in the Sejm. It combines social conservatism and criticism of immigration with strong support for NATO and an interventionist economic policy.[172]

Polish Congress of the New Right, headed by Michał Marusik, aggressively promotes fiscally conservative concepts like radical tax reductions preceded by abolishment of social security, universal public healthcare, state-sponsored education and abolishment of Communist Polish 1944 agricultural reform as a way to dynamical economic and welfare growth.[173][174] The party is considered populist both by right-wing and left-wing publicists.[175][176]

Romania

The Alliance for the Union of Romanians (AUR), a right-wing populist party,[177] became the fourth-largest political force in Romania after the 2020 Romanian legislative election.[178]

Spain

 
Santiago Abascal, leader of VOX, during the party conference in October 2018.

In Spain, the appearance of right-wing populism began to gain strength after the December 2018 election for the Parliament of Andalusia, in which the right-wing populist party VOX managed to obtain 12 seats,[179] and agreed to support a coalition government of the parties of the right People's Party and Citizens, even though the Socialist Party won the elections.[180] VOX, that has been frequently described as far-right, both by the left parties and by Spanish or international press,[181][182] promotes characteristic policies of the populist right,[183] such as the expulsion of all illegal immigrants from the country -even of legal immigrants who commit crimes-, a generalized criminal tightening, combined with traditional claims of right-wing conservatives, such as the centralization of the State and the suppression of the Autonomous Communities, and has harshly criticized the laws against gender violence, approved by the socialist government of José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero, but later maintained by the PP executive of Mariano Rajoy, accusing the people and institutions that defend them of applying "gender totalitarianism".[184]

Party official Javier Ortega Smith is being investigated for alleged hate speech after Spanish prosecutors admitted a complaint by an Islamic association in connection with a rally that talked about “the Islamist invasion”.[185] The party election manifesto that was finally published merged classic far-right-inspired policies with right-libertarianism in tax and social security matters.

After months of political uncertainty and protests against the party in Andalusia[186] and other regions,[187] in the 2019 Spanish general election VOX managed to obtain 24 deputies in the Congress of Deputies, with 10.26% of the vote, falling short from expectations[188] after an intense electoral campaign in which VOX gathered big crowds of people at their events. Although the People's Party and Citizens leaders, Pablo Casado and Albert Rivera, had admitted repeatedly during the campaign that they would again agree with VOX in order to reach the government,[189] the sum of all their seats finally left them far from any possibility, giving the government to the social democrat Pedro Sánchez.[190]

Sweden

In Sweden, the first openly populist movement to be represented in the Riksdag (Swedish parliament), New Democracy was founded in 1994 by businessman Bert Karlsson and aristocrat Ian Wachtmeister. Although New Democracy promoted economic issues as its foremost concern, it also advocated restrictions on immigration and welfare chauvinism. The party saw a sharp rise in support in 1994 before going into a decline soon after.[191][192]

In 2010, the Sweden Democrats entered parliament for the first time. The Sweden Democrats originally had connections to white nationalism during its early days, but later began expelling hardline members and moderated its platform to transform itself into a more mainstream movement. The party calls for more robust immigration and asylum policies, compulsory measures for immigrants to be assimilated into Swedish society, and for stricter law and order policies. The Sweden Democrats are currently the third largest party in Sweden with 17.53% of popular votes in the parliamentary election of 2018.[132][193]

Switzerland

انظر أيضاً: Far-right politics in Switzerland

In Switzerland, the right-wing populist Swiss People's Party (SVP) reached an all-time high in the 2015 elections. The party is mainly considered to be national conservative,[194][195] but it has also variously been identified as "extreme right"[196] and "radical right-wing populist",[197] reflecting a spectrum of ideologies present among its members. In its far-right wing, it includes members such as Ulrich Schlüer, Pascal Junod, who heads a New Right study group and has been linked to Holocaust denial and neo-Nazism.[198][199]

In Switzerland, radical right populist parties held close to 10% of the popular vote in 1971, were reduced to below 2% by 1979 and again grew to more than 10% in 1991. Since 1991, these parties (the Swiss Democrats and the Swiss Freedom Party) have been absorbed by the SVP. During the 1990s, the SVP grew from being the fourth largest party to being the largest and gained a second seat the Swiss Federal Council in 2003, with prominent politician and businessman Christoph Blocher. In 2015, the SVP received 29.4% of the vote, the highest vote ever recorded for a single party throughout Swiss parliamentary history.[200][201][202][203]

Turkey

The Justice and Development Party (AKP) and its leader Recep Tayyip Erdoğan has been in power since 2002.

Victory Party (Turkey) is a Patriotic and Kemalist political party in Turkey founded on August 26, 2021 under the leadership of Ümit Özdağ. It is represented in the Grand National Assembly of Turkey by two deputies. Victory Party (Turkey) is the continuation of the Ayyıldız Movement initiated by Ümit Özdağ, the founding petition of the party was submitted to the Ministry of the Interior on 26 August 2021 and then the party was officially established. The party leader Özdağ and his deputies aim to re-institute Turkish Kemalism and Turkish Nationalism ideologies in the government and claim sending back of all Syrian, Afghan and other refugees to their homeland. Victory Party (Turkey) is the new leader party of the Right-wing politics and Far-right politics in Turkey. Party; it is against immigrants and aims to send them all back to where they came from.

United Kingdom

 
Margaret Thatcher, leader of the centre-right Conservative Party and former Prime Minister of the United Kingdom.
انظر أيضاً: Thatcherism

Thatcherism, a major conservative ideology in modern Britain, has right-wing populist elements, including nationalism and social conservatism.[204]

Media outlets such as The New York Times have called the UK Independence Party (UKIP), then led by Nigel Farage, the largest right-wing populist party in the United Kingdom.[205] UKIP campaigned for an exit from the European Union prior to the 2016 European membership referendum[206] and a points-based immigration system similar to that used in Australia.[207][208][209]

The United Kingdom's governing Conservative Party has seen defections to UKIP over the European Union and immigration debates as well as LGBT rights.[210]

In the Conservative Party, past prime minister Boris Johnson has been described as expressing right-wing populist views during the successful Vote Leave campaign.[211] Jacob Rees-Mogg, the Leader of the House of Commons, has also been described as a right-wing populist.[212]

In Northern Ireland, the Democratic Unionist Party (DUP) is the main right-wing populist force.[213]

Right-wing populist political parties

المقالة الرئيسية: List of populists

Current right-wing populist parties or parties with right-wing populist factions

Represented in national legislatures

Not represented in national legislatures

Former or disbanded right-wing populist parties

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Freeden has developed in 1996 the idea that every ideology has "core" and "peripheral" concepts. Building on his work, Terance Ball (1999) has given the following definition: "A core concept is one that is both central to, and constitutive of, a particular ideology and therefore of the ideological community to which it gives inspiration and identity. For example, the concept of 'class' (and of course 'class struggle') is a key or core concept in Marxism, as 'gender' is in feminism, and 'liberty' (or 'individual liberty') is in liberalism, and so on through the list of leading ideologies."
  2. ^ Mudde: authoritarianism "is the belief in a strictly ordered society, in which infringements of authority are to be punished severely. In this interpretation, [it] includes law and order and “punitive conventional moralism.” It does not necessarily mean an anti-democratic attitude, but neither does it preclude one. In addition, the authoritarian's submission to authority, established or not, is “not absolute, automatic, nor blind”. In other words, while authoritarians will be more inclined to accept (established) authority than non-authoritarians, they can and will rebel under certain circumstances."
  3. ^ "Maximal" right-wing populists here give a preference for the état légal—which gives primacy to the law as expressed by the general will via election or referendum; against the Rechtsstaat—which limits the power of the democratic state (the majority) to protect the rights of minorities.
  4. ^ Neo-populists, contrary to the Marxist worldview, do not oppose the "working class" to the "bourgeoisie" and capitalists, but rather the "people" to the "elites" and immigrants.

References

  1. ^ Berman, Sheri (11 مايو 2021). "The Causes of Populism in the West". Annual Review of Political Science. 24 (1): 71–88. doi:10.1146/annurev-polisci-041719-102503.
  2. ^ Camus, Jean-Yves; Lebourg, Nicolas (20 مارس 2017). Far-Right Politics in Europe. Harvard University Press. pp. 12–13. ISBN 9780674971530.
  3. ^ أ ب Eatwell, Roger; Goodwin, Matthew (25 أكتوبر 2018). National Populism: The Revolt Against Liberal Democracy (in الإنجليزية). Penguin UK. pp. 1–2. ISBN 9780241312018.
  4. ^ Zembylas, Michalinos. Affect and the Rise of Right-Wing Populism.
  5. ^ Akkerman, Agnes (2003) "Populism and Democracy: Challenge or Pathology?" Acta Politica n.38, pp.147-159
  6. ^ Bierbach, Mara (26 فبراير 2019). "Climate protection: Where do the EU's right-wing populists stand?". Deutsche Welle. Retrieved 5 يونيو 2019.
  7. ^ أ ب ت ث Kallis, Aristotle (2018). "Part I: Ideology and Discourse – The Radical Right and Islamophobia". In Rydgren, Jens (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of the Radical Right. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 42–60. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190274559.013.3. ISBN 9780190274559. LCCN 2017025436.
  8. ^ North, Bonnie. "The Rise of Right-Wing Nationalist Political Parties in Europe" (in الإنجليزية). Retrieved 24 مارس 2017.
  9. ^ "Fear of Diversity Made People More Likely to Vote Trump". The Nation. ISSN 0027-8378. Retrieved 24 مارس 2017.
  10. ^ "The political lexicon of a billionaire populist". Washington Post. Retrieved 24 مارس 2017.
  11. ^ "The End of Reaganism". POLITICO Magazine. Retrieved 24 مارس 2017.
  12. ^ Sharpe, Matthew. "The metapolitical long game of the European New Right". The Conversation (in الإنجليزية). Retrieved 24 مارس 2017.
  13. ^ Traub, James. "The Geert Wilders Effect and the national election in the Netherlands". chicagotribune.com (in الإنجليزية الأمريكية). Retrieved 24 مارس 2017.
  14. ^ Buruma, Ian (10 مارس 2017). "How the Dutch Stopped Being Decent and Dull". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 24 مارس 2017.
  15. ^ Busemeyer, Marius R.; Rathgeb, Philip; Sahm, Alexander H. J. (2 مارس 2021). "Authoritarian values and the welfare state: the social policy preferences of radical right voters". West European Politics. 45: 77–101. doi:10.1080/01402382.2021.1886497. ISSN 0140-2382. S2CID 233843313.
  16. ^ Edsall, Thomas (16 ديسمبر 2014). "The Rise of 'Welfare Chauvinism'". New York Times. Retrieved 4 يناير 2015.
  17. ^ Rippon, Haydn (4 مايو 2012). "The European far right: actually right? Or left? Or something altogether different?". The Conversation. Retrieved 4 يناير 2015.
  18. ^ Matlack, Carol (20 نوفمبر 2013). "The Far-Left Economics of France's Far Right". Bloomberg.com. Retrieved 4 يناير 2015.
  19. ^ Kaplan & Weinberg 1998, pp. 1–2.
  20. ^ Judis, John B. (5 أكتوبر 2016). The Populist Explosion: How the Great Recession Transformed American and European Politics. Columbia Global Reports. ISBN 978-0997126440.
  21. ^ Cooper, Ryan (15 مارس 2017). "The Great Recession clearly gave rise to right-wing populism". The Week. Retrieved 20 نوفمبر 2017.
  22. ^ Sarmadi, Dario (20 أكتوبر 2015). "Far-right parties always gain support after financial crises, report finds". EURACTIV. Retrieved 20 نوفمبر 2017.
  23. ^ "The map which shows how Ukip support is growing in every constituency but two". The Independent (in الإنجليزية البريطانية). 15 مايو 2015. Retrieved 24 مارس 2017.
  24. ^ Hunt, Alex (21 نوفمبر 2014). "UKIP: The story of the UK Independence Party's rise". BBC News (in الإنجليزية البريطانية). Retrieved 24 مارس 2017.
  25. ^ Lowe, Josh; Matthews, Owen; AM, Matt McAllester On 11/23/16 at 9:02 (23 نوفمبر 2016). "Why Europe's populist revolt is spreading". Newsweek. Retrieved 24 مارس 2017.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  26. ^ "Trump's 6 populist positions". POLITICO. Retrieved 24 مارس 2017.
  27. ^ Zembylas, Michalinos. Affect and the Rise of Right-Wing Populism.
  28. ^ Mudde, Cas (2007). Populist Radical Right Parties in Europe (in الإنجليزية). Cambridge University Press. pp. 15–31. ISBN 9780511341434.
  29. ^ أ ب ت Mudde, Cas; Kaltwasser, Cristóbal Rovira (2017). Populism: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 34–35. ISBN 9780190234874.
  30. ^ Eatwell, Roger (2017) "Populism and Fascism" in Kaltwasser, Cristóbal Rovira;Taggart, Paul; Espejo, Paulina Ochoa; and Ostiguy, Pierre eds. The Oxford Handbook of Populism
  31. ^ Brown, Drew (31 October 2018) "Where Does ‘Right-Wing Populism’ End, and Fascism Begin?" Vice
  32. ^ Federico Finchelstein, Federico (2019) From Fascism to Populism in History Berkeley, California: University of California Press. pp.5-6 ISBN 9780520309357
  33. ^ Berggren, Erik and Neergard, Andres "Populism: Protest, democratic challenge and right wing sxtremism" in Dahlstedt, Magnus and Neergaard, Andres eds. (2015) International Migration and Ethnic Relations: Critical Perspectives/ New York: Routledge. p.179. ISBN 9781317655909
  34. ^ Shenkman, Rick (8 September 2019) "The Shocking Paper Predicting the End of Democracy" Politico Magazine
  35. ^ Rydgren, Jens (2018). The Oxford Handbook of the Radical Right (in الإنجليزية). Oxford University Press. p. 56. ISBN 9780190274559.
  36. ^ Rooduijn, Matthijs (2014). "Vox populismus: a populist radical right attitude among the public?". Nations and Nationalism (in الإنجليزية). 20 (1): 82. doi:10.1111/nana.12054. ISSN 1469-8129.
  37. ^ Kaplan & Weinberg 1998, pp. 10–11.
  38. ^ "From 'Brexit' To Trump, Nationalist Movements Gain Momentum Around World". NPR.org. Retrieved 24 مارس 2017.
  39. ^ Norris 2005, p. 44.
  40. ^ Bisbee, James; Mosley, Layna; Pepinsky, Thomas B.; Rosendorff, B. Peter (2 يوليو 2020). "Decompensating domestically: the political economy of anti-globalism". Journal of European Public Policy. 27 (7): 1090–1102. doi:10.1080/13501763.2019.1678662. S2CID 211341396.
  41. ^ أ ب Camus, Jean-Yves; Lebourg, Nicolas (20 مارس 2017). Far-Right Politics in Europe (in الإنجليزية). Harvard University Press. pp. 12–14. ISBN 9780674971530.
  42. ^ Camus, Jean-Yves; Lebourg, Nicolas (20 مارس 2017). Far-Right Politics in Europe (in الإنجليزية). Harvard University Press. pp. 178–179. ISBN 9780674971530.
  43. ^ Rydgren, Jens (2005) "Is Extreme Right-Wing Populism Contagious? Explaining the Emergence of a New Party Family" European Journal of Political Research n.44, pp.413-37
  44. ^ Eslen-Ziya, Hande (2020). "Right-wing populism in New Turkey: Leading to all new grounds for troll science in gender theory". HTS Teologiese Studies. 76 (3). doi:10.4102/hts.v76i3.6005. S2CID 224856495.
  45. ^ أ ب ت Camus, Jean-Yves; Lebourg, Nicolas (20 مارس 2017). Far-Right Politics in Europe (in الإنجليزية). Harvard University Press. pp. 12–14, 16–17. ISBN 9780674971530.
  46. ^ Stéphane François (24 أغسطس 2009). "Qu'est ce que la Révolution Conservatrice ?". Fragments sur les Temps Présents (in الفرنسية). Retrieved 23 يوليو 2019.
  47. ^ Drake, D. (5 أبريل 2005). French Intellectuals and Politics from the Dreyfus Affair to the Occupation (in الإنجليزية). Springer. p. 32. ISBN 9780230006096.
  48. ^ أ ب Ignazi 2002, p. 26.
  49. ^ Betz, Hans-Georg. Radical Right-Wing Populism in Western Europe.
  50. ^ Camus, Jean-Yves; Lebourg, Nicolas (20 مارس 2017). Far-Right Politics in Europe (in الإنجليزية). Harvard University Press. pp. 48–49, 178–179, 198. ISBN 9780674971530.
  51. ^ Wodak, Ruth. Right-Wing Populism in Europe: Politics and Discourse.
  52. ^ Goodwin, Matthew (14 يونيو 2019). "Europe's Populists Are Here to Stay - WSJ". Wall Street Journal.
  53. ^ "The death of populism has been greatly exaggerated | The Spectator".
  54. ^ Mudde, C. (2002). The Ideology of the Extreme Right. Manchester University Press. ISBN 9780719064463. Retrieved 3 يناير 2015.
  55. ^ Norris 2005, pp. 68–69, 72.
  56. ^ Boulos, Guilherme. "Onda Conservadora". Retrieved 11 أكتوبر 2017. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)[dead link]
  57. ^ "PRTB oficializa candidatura de Levy Fidelix à Presidência da República". Eleições 2014 em São Paulo (in البرتغالية البرازيلية). 15 يونيو 2014. Retrieved 23 نوفمبر 2018.
  58. ^ "Levy se assume como candidato da direita e promete defender ditadura - Notícias - Política". Política (in البرتغالية البرازيلية). Retrieved 23 نوفمبر 2018.
  59. ^ "Apuração de votos e resultado das Eleições 2014 (Fonte: TSE): Presidente e candidatos eleitos - UOL Eleições 2014". UOL Eleições 2014 (in البرتغالية البرازيلية). Retrieved 23 نوفمبر 2018.
  60. ^ "Levy Fidelix anuncia apoio a Aécio Neves no segundo turno". Eleições 2014 (in البرتغالية البرازيلية). 15 أكتوبر 2014. Retrieved 23 نوفمبر 2018.
  61. ^ Soares, José Manoel Montanha da Silveira (2017). "A onda conservadora: ensaios sobre os atuais tempos sombrios no Brasil". Revista Em Pauta. 15 (39). doi:10.12957/rep.2017.30390. ISSN 2238-3786.
  62. ^ أ ب Phillips, Don (17 أكتوبر 2017). "Accused of corruption, popularity near zero – why is Temer still Brazil's president?". The Guardian. Retrieved 5 نوفمبر 2017.
  63. ^ أ ب Watson, Kay. "Brazil's President Temer avoids corruption trial". BBC. Retrieved 5 نوفمبر 2017.
  64. ^ "Brazil's Senate president ousted over embezzlement charges". The Guardian. 6 ديسمبر 2016. Retrieved 5 نوفمبر 2017.
  65. ^ "Deputado Jair Bolsonaro deixa o PSC e se filia ao PSL" [Congressman Jair Bolsonaro leaves the PSC and joins the PSL] (in البرتغالية). Pleno. 5 يناير 2018. Retrieved 16 سبتمبر 2018.
  66. ^ أ ب Pepe Escobar (9 أكتوبر 2018). "Future of Western Democracy Being Played Out in Brazil". Consortium News. Retrieved 15 أكتوبر 2018.
  67. ^ "Trump Cements Alliance With Far-Right Brazilian President Bolsonaro". The Globe Post. 19 مارس 2019.
  68. ^ "Lula lidera, e Bolsonaro se consolida em 2º, aponta Datafolha". Poder. 2 ديسمبر 2017. Retrieved 7 ديسمبر 2017.
  69. ^ Fonseca, Alana; Gimenes, Erick; Kaniak, Thais; Dionísio, Bibiana (12 يوليو 2017). "Lula é condenado na Lava Jato no caso do triplex" (in البرتغالية). G1. Retrieved 23 سبتمبر 2017.
  70. ^ "Urgente: Lula É Condenado Por Unanimidade Pelo TRF-4". O Antagonista. 24 يناير 2018.
  71. ^ Gavin Fernando (29 أبريل 2016). "Is this the world's most repulsive politician?". News.com.au — Australia's Leading News Site.
  72. ^ Simon Romero (7 مايو 2016). "Conservative's Star Rises in Brazil as Polarizing Views Tap Into Discontent". The New York Times.
  73. ^ "The Most Misogynistic, Hateful Elected Official in the Democratic World: Brazil's Jair Bolsonaro – The Intercept". The Intercept. 11 ديسمبر 2014.
  74. ^ "A lightning rod for attacks by Brazil's right wing". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 7 سبتمبر 2018.
  75. ^ Watts, Jonathan (18 أبريل 2016). "Dilma Rousseff: Brazilian congress votes to impeach president". The Guardian (in الإنجليزية البريطانية). ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 18 أبريل 2016.
  76. ^ "'Irresponsible' populism: Lisa Raitt slams Kevin O'Leary, Kellie Leitch".
  77. ^ "Could Trumpism Take Root in Canada?". Pacific Standard. 15 مارس 2017. Retrieved 24 مارس 2017.
  78. ^ "Patrick Brown returns to Queen's Park for budget speech". Toronto Star. 28 مارس 2018.
  79. ^ "Anti-elitist politicians in Canada are courting immigrants". The Economist. 19 أبريل 2018.
  80. ^ أ ب "Maxime Bernier Launches 'The People's Party of Canada'". Complex. 14 سبتمبر 2018.
  81. ^ Editorial Board (2018). "Costa Rica shows an admirable resistance to demagoguery". The Washington Post. Retrieved 10 ديسمبر 2018.
  82. ^ Henley, Jon (2 أبريل 2018). "Costa Rica: Carlos Alvarado wins presidency in vote fought on gay rights". The Guardian. Retrieved 10 ديسمبر 2018.
  83. ^ "Costa Rica's Election: It Wasn't the Economy, Stupid!". Q. 19 فبراير 2018. Retrieved 10 ديسمبر 2018.
  84. ^ Arco, Eduardo (9 فبراير 2018). "Costa Rica's Rollercoaster Election Was About More Than Gay Marriage". WPR. Retrieved 10 ديسمبر 2018.
  85. ^ Leonard J. Moore, "Good Old-Fashioned New Social History and the Twentieth-Century American Right," Reviews in American History vol 24#4 (1996) pp. 555–73, quote at p. 561
  86. ^ Stark, Steven (فبراير 1996). "Right-Wing Populist". The Atlantic.
  87. ^ Scott Rasmussen and Doug Schoen, Mad As Hell: How the Tea Party Movement Is Fundamentally Remaking Our Two-Party System (2010) quotes on p. 19
  88. ^ David Barstow, "Tea Party Lights Fuse for Rebellion on Right," New York Times Feb 6, 2010
  89. ^ "What On Earth Is Ted Cruz Doing?". Vanity Fair. 23 سبتمبر 2016.
  90. ^ "Playing with fear". The Economist. 12 ديسمبر 2015.
  91. ^ Maltsev, Yuri (2013). The Tea Party Explained: From Crisis to Crusade. Open Court. p. 26.
  92. ^ "In The Freedom Caucus, Trump Meets His Match". The Atlantic. 7 أبريل 2017.
  93. ^ Matthew N. Lyons, Chip Berlet. Right-Wing Populism in America: Too Close for Comfort.
  94. ^ Dolgert 2016; Greven 2016.
  95. ^ Neiwert, David (2016). "Trump and Right-Wing Populism: A Long Time Coming" (PDF). The Public Eye. No. 86. Somerville, Massachusetts: Political Research Associates. pp. 3, 19. ISSN 0275-9322. Archived from the original (PDF) on 30 نوفمبر 2016. Retrieved 9 أغسطس 2016.
  96. ^ "The future of Bannonism". The Economist. 25 أغسطس 2017.
  97. ^ "The rise of populist politics in Australia". BBC. 1 مارس 2017.
  98. ^ "Pauline Hanson's One Nation emerges as government's most reliable Senate voting partner". Sydney Morning Herald. 4 مارس 2017.
  99. ^ "Turnbull challenged by populist upstart". The Times. 7 فبراير 2017.
  100. ^ "Meet Bob and David, our new libertarian senators". Australian Financial Review. 12 يوليو 2014.
  101. ^ قالب:Cite work
  102. ^ "Bernardi's alliance intends to bloc Xenophon". The Australian. 27 أبريل 2017.
  103. ^ Mondon, Aurélien (2013). The Mainstreaming of the Extreme Right in France and Australia. If ... Abbott failed to satisfy the electorate he has assuaged with his right-wing populism, a return to more traditionally extreme politics could be a real possibility {{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help)
  104. ^ "Australia's Turnbull Digs In as Rival Dutton Seeks Leadership". Bloomberg. 22 أغسطس 2018.
  105. ^ [1], Ex-adviser Steve Bannon says Abe was 'Trump before Trump,' urges him to play hardball with China, Japan Times, 8 March 2019.
  106. ^ Patrik Hermansson; David Lawrence; Joe Mulhall, eds. (2020). The International Alt-Right: Fascism for the 21st Century?. Routledge.
  107. ^ أ ب "Populism visits Pakistan - Daily Times". Daily Times (in الإنجليزية الأمريكية). 17 أغسطس 2018. Retrieved 29 أكتوبر 2018.
  108. ^ "The limits of populism" (in الإنجليزية). Retrieved 29 أكتوبر 2018.
  109. ^ Jang Hoon. "Liberty Korea Party, conservative populism has no future". JoongAng Ilbo. Retrieved 5 أبريل 2018.
  110. ^ "이언주는 '젊은 세대'로서 '자국민 중심주의'를 외친다". 21 نوفمبر 2018. Retrieved 21 نوفمبر 2018.
  111. ^ "홍준표 "중소기업 외국인노동자도 최저임금 올려줘야 하나"". 이데일리.
  112. ^ ""혐오를 이용하는 치졸한 정치, 이제는 멈추자"" ["Cheap politics that uses hatred. Let's stop now".]. 프레시안. 13 نوفمبر 2021. Retrieved 14 نوفمبر 2021.
  113. ^ "한국당 '당권 레이스' 마지막까지 '극우 포퓰리즘' (LKP is an 'extreme right populism' until the end of the 'party race')". 프레시안(Pressian). 27 فبراير 2019. Retrieved 12 فبراير 2021.
  114. ^ "자유도 시장도 몰라 우파 유튜버의 황당 세상 (The absurd world of right-wing YouTubers who don't know freedom or market)". 시사IN. 7 يناير 2020. Retrieved 12 فبراير 2021.
  115. ^ "마잉주 전 대만 총통 "차이잉원 친미노선 전쟁 위험 야기" (Former Taiwan President Ma Ying-jeou said, "Tsai Ing-wen's pro-American line poses a war risk.")". Yonhap News Agency (in korean). 22 أغسطس 2020. Retrieved 12 فبراير 2021.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: unrecognized language (link)
  116. ^ أ ب "Can Taiwan's President fend off a populist wave?". The Interpreter. 29 يوليو 2019. Retrieved 12 فبراير 2021.
  117. ^ أ ب "Taiwan's 2020 Presidential Elections". The Diplomat. 12 ديسمبر 2019. Retrieved 12 فبراير 2021. These supporters, called "Han maniacs," elevated Han to presidential nominee. Ultimately, though, they were a minority, possibly some twenty percent of the overall electorate, and Han's political position, friendly to Beijing and inclined to right-wing populism, started to erode his support.
  118. ^ ""중국과 평화냐 전쟁이냐 묻겠다"…'대만판 트럼프' 신드롬" ["Is it peace or war with China?" ... 'Taiwanese version of Trump' syndrome.]. JoongAng Ilbo (in korean). 9 يوليو 2019. Retrieved 9 نوفمبر 2021.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: unrecognized language (link)
  119. ^ "EU leaders to hold talks on Russian political meddling". Financial Times. Retrieved 29 يناير 2017.
  120. ^ "Czech Republic accuses Putin of backing EU's rightwing". Financial Times. Retrieved 29 يناير 2017.
  121. ^ Adler, David; Ansell, Ben (2019). "Housing and populism". West European Politics. 43 (2): 344–365. doi:10.1080/01402382.2019.1615322.
  122. ^ "Elections 2004 – Flemish Council – List Results". polling2004.belgium.be. Retrieved 3 يناير 2015.
  123. ^ "Court rules Vlaams Blok is racist". BBC News. 9 نوفمبر 2004.
  124. ^ Vlaams Belang (7 يناير 2005). "Programmaboek 2004" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 مارس 2016. Retrieved 3 يناير 2015.
  125. ^ Liphshiz, Cnaan (12 ديسمبر 2008). "Advertisement". Haaretz. haaretz.com. Retrieved 3 يناير 2015.
  126. ^ Smith, Craig S. (12 فبراير 2005). "Fear of Islamists Drives Growth of Far Right in Belgium". The New York Times. Antwerp. Retrieved 10 يناير 2010.
  127. ^ "Vlaams Parlement". vlaamsparlement.be. Archived from the original on 7 يناير 2015. Retrieved 3 يناير 2015.
  128. ^ "De Belgische Kamer van volksvertegenwoordigers". www.dekamer.be. Archived from the original on 28 يونيو 2013. Retrieved 20 سبتمبر 2020.
  129. ^ "ZEIT ONLINE | Lesen Sie zeit.de mit Werbung oder imPUR-Abo. Sie haben die Wahl". zeit.de. Retrieved 15 يوليو 2020.
  130. ^ "Vlaams Parlement 2019". Archived from the original on 28 مايو 2019. Retrieved 30 مايو 2019.
  131. ^ Katsourides, Yiannos (ديسمبر 2013). "Determinants of extreme right reappearance in Cyprus: The National Popular Front (ELAM), Golden Dawn's sister party". South European Society and Politics. 18 (4): 567–589. doi:10.1080/13608746.2013.798893. S2CID 153418352.
  132. ^ أ ب Jens Rydgren. "Explaining the Emergence of Radical Right-Wing Populist Parties: The Case of Denmark" West European Politics, Vol. 27, No. 3, May 2004, pp. 474–502."
  133. ^ Givens, Terri E. (2005). Voting radical right in Western Europe. Cambridge University. pp. 136–39. ISBN 978-0-521-85134-3.
  134. ^ "Head of Danish Populist Party to Resign". Associated Press. 8 أغسطس 2012. Retrieved 8 أغسطس 2012.
  135. ^ Eddy, Melissa (18 يونيو 2015). "Anti-Immigrant Party Gains in Denmark Elections". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 24 مارس 2017.
  136. ^ "The Party Program of the Danish People's Party". danskfolkeparti. أكتوبر 2002. Archived from the original on 19 ديسمبر 2013.
  137. ^ "Her er Danmarks nye borgerlige parti: Vil udfordre DF og LA" (in الدانمركية). TV 2 News. 20 أكتوبر 2015. Retrieved 27 ديسمبر 2016.
  138. ^ "Alma-kysely: Keskustan alamäki kiihtyy – vihreät iskuetäisyydellä, perussuomalaiset nousee". Uusi Suomi (in الفنلندية). Retrieved 4 فبراير 2019.
  139. ^ Rene Remond, ed. (2016). The Right Wing in France: From 1815 to de Gaulle. University of Pennsylvania Press.
  140. ^ Geoffrey K. Roberts; Bill Jones; Patricia Hogwood, eds. (2003). The Politics Today Companion to West European Politics. Manchester University Press. ISBN 9780719054211. In the late 1950s and early 1960s , the French Gaullist Party adopted a populist approach, appealing to the nation to support the personal leadership of General de Gaulle.
  141. ^ Nossiter, Adam (10 مارس 2018). "'Let Them Call You Racists': Bannon's Pep Talk to National Front". The New York Times (in الإنجليزية الأمريكية). ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 30 مارس 2018.
  142. ^ "Salafists and Right-Wing Populists Battle in Bonn". Spiegel. 5 يوليو 2012.
  143. ^ أ ب Boyka M. Stefanova (14 نوفمبر 2014). The European Union beyond the Crisis: Evolving Governance, Contested Policies, and Disenchanted Publics. Lexington Books. p. 261. ISBN 978-1-4985-0348-8.
  144. ^ Christian Karner; Bram Mertens (30 سبتمبر 2013). The Use and Abuse of Memory: Interpreting World War II in Contemporary European Politics. Transaction Publishers. p. 168. ISBN 978-1-4128-5203-6.
  145. ^ "Greece anti-bailout leader Tsipras made prime minister". BBC News. 26 يناير 2015.
  146. ^ "Greek far-right leader vows to 'take back' İstanbul, İzmir". todayszaman.com. Archived from the original on 3 نوفمبر 2013. Retrieved 3 يناير 2015.
  147. ^ Squires, Nick (2 مايو 2013). "Golden Dawn's 'Greeks only' soup kitchen ends in chaos". The Daily Telegraph. London. Archived from the original on 11 يناير 2022.
  148. ^ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 يوليو 2011. Retrieved 15 يناير 2011.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  149. ^ "Tribunes and Patricians: Radical Fringe Parties in the 21st Century" (PDF). carleton.ca. 16 يناير 2013. Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 يوليو 2014. Retrieved 3 يناير 2015.
  150. ^ "Continent of Fear: The Rise of Europe's Right-Wing Populists". Spiegel Online. spiegel.de. 28 سبتمبر 2010. Retrieved 3 يناير 2015.
  151. ^ "Così la Lega conquista nuovi elettori (non solo al nord)". ilfoglio.it. Archived from the original on 21 مايو 2014. Retrieved 3 يناير 2015.
  152. ^ "Lega Nord: Maroni ne' destra ne' sinistra, alleanze dopo congresso". asca.it. Archived from the original on 21 مايو 2014. Retrieved 3 يناير 2015.
  153. ^ "INTERVISTA Matteo Salvini (Lega): "Renzi? Peggio di Monti, vergognoso con la Merkel". termometropolitico.it. 20 مارس 2014. Retrieved 3 يناير 2015.
  154. ^ "Lega Nord". leganord.org. Archived from the original on 24 يونيو 2019. Retrieved 3 يناير 2015.
  155. ^ أ ب Tambini, Damian (6 ديسمبر 2012). Nationalism in Italian Politics: The Stories of the Northern League, 1980–2000. Routledge. ISBN 9781134540013.
  156. ^ أ ب Russo Bullaro, Grace (2010). From Terrone to Extracomunitario: New Manifestations of Racism in Contemporary Italian Cinema : Shifting Demographics and Changing Images in a Multi-cultural Globalized Society. Troubador Publishing Ltd. pp. 179–81. ISBN 9781848761766.
  157. ^ Willey, David (14 أبريل 2012). "The rise and fall of Northern League founder Umberto Bossi". BBC News. Retrieved 28 أكتوبر 2015.
  158. ^ Pullella, Philip (8 مارس 2011). "Italy unity anniversary divides more than unites". Reuters. Retrieved 28 أكتوبر 2015.
  159. ^ Garau, Eva (17 ديسمبر 2014). Politics of National Identity in Italy: Immigration and 'Italianità'. Routledge. pp. 110–11. ISBN 9781317557661. Retrieved 28 أكتوبر 2015.
  160. ^ "Italy's Northern League Is Suddenly In Love With the South". Bloomberg.com. 20 فبراير 2018. Retrieved 2 مارس 2018.
  161. ^ "Rivoluzione nella Lega: cambiano nome e simbolo". 24 يوليو 2017. Retrieved 2 مارس 2018.
  162. ^ "Lega, nuovo simbolo senza "nord". Salvini: "Sarà valido per tutta Italia"". 27 أكتوبر 2017. Retrieved 2 مارس 2018.
  163. ^ "Italy — National parliament voting intention". POLITICO. 17 فبراير 2022.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  164. ^ Liang, Christina (2016), Europe for the Europeans: The Foreign and Security Policy of the Populist Radical Right, Routledge, p. 187 
  165. ^ Feffer, John (23 نوفمبر 2016). "What Europe Can Teach Us about Trump". Foreign Policy in Focus.
  166. ^ "In pictures: Death of Pim Fortuyn". BBC News. 7 مايو 2002.
  167. ^ "Far-right outcast Geert Wilders vows to 'de-Islamise' the Netherlands after taking lead in Dutch polls". The Independent (in الإنجليزية البريطانية). 12 فبراير 2017. Retrieved 24 مارس 2017.
  168. ^ Lauren Said-Moorhouse; Bryony Jones. "Dutch elections: Wilders' far-right party beaten, early results show". CNN. Retrieved 24 مارس 2017.
  169. ^ أ ب "The Dutch defeat 'the wrong kind of populism'". Heinrich Böll Foundation. 22 مارس 2017.
  170. ^ Faber, Sebastiaan (5 أبريل 2018). "Is Dutch Bad Boy Thierry Baudet the New Face of the European Alt-Right?". The Nation.
  171. ^ "Can Europe's new xenophobes reshape the continent?". The Guardian. 3 فبراير 2018.
  172. ^ "In Poland, a right-wing, populist, anti-immigrant government sees an ally in Trump". LA Times. 5 يوليو 2017. Retrieved 13 يوليو 2017.
  173. ^ "Korwin-Mikke: Feudalizmie wróć! | Najwyższy Czas!". nczas.com. 7 يناير 2012. Retrieved 3 يناير 2015.
  174. ^ "Program KNP". nowaprawicajkm.pl. Archived from the original on 7 يناير 2015. Retrieved 3 يناير 2015.
  175. ^ "Korwin-Mikke – guru nonsensu Gazeta wSieci". wsieci.pl. Retrieved 3 يناير 2015.
  176. ^ "Wirus korwinizmu – Krzysztof Derebecki – Mój lewicowy punkt widzenia". lewica.pl. Retrieved 3 يناير 2015.
  177. ^ أ ب "Romanian opposition takes narrow lead after election". BBC News. 7 ديسمبر 2020. Archived from the original on 8 ديسمبر 2020.
  178. ^ McGrath, Stephen (8 ديسمبر 2020). "How a far-right party came from nowhere to shock in Romania's election". Euronews.
  179. ^ Gálvez, José María Jiménez (3 ديسمبر 2018). "Vox: the far-right party that made shock gains in the regional polls". El País (in الإنجليزية). ISSN 1134-6582. Retrieved 2 مايو 2019.
  180. ^ Marcos, José; Sáiz, Eva; Blas, Elsa García de; Junquera, Natalia (3 ديسمبر 2018). "Spain's center-right mulls deal with Vox to gain control of Andalusia". El País (in الإنجليزية). ISSN 1134-6582. Retrieved 2 مايو 2019.
  181. ^ Loucaides, Sohail Jannessari, Darren. "Spain's Vox Party Hates Muslims—Except the Ones Who Fund It". Foreign Policy (in الإنجليزية). Retrieved 2 مايو 2019.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  182. ^ Pardo, Pablo. "Make Spain Great Again". Foreign Policy (in الإنجليزية). Retrieved 2 مايو 2019.
  183. ^ "Programa electoral". VOX (in الإسبانية). Retrieved 2 مايو 2019.
  184. ^ Rodríguez, Jorge A. (3 ديسمبر 2018). "Far-right Spanish political party Vox: What are its policies?". El País (in الإنجليزية). ISSN 1134-6582. Archived from the original on 30 أبريل 2019. Retrieved 2 مايو 2019.
  185. ^ González, Miguel (4 أبريل 2019). "Vox party official under scrutiny for alleged hate speech against Muslims". El País (in الإنجليزية). ISSN 1134-6582. Retrieved 3 مايو 2019.
  186. ^ Lucio, Lourdes; Sáiz, Eva; País, El (15 يناير 2019). "Protests outside Andalusian parliament as investiture debate begins". El País (in الإنجليزية). ISSN 1134-6582. Retrieved 2 مايو 2019.
  187. ^ Valdés, Isabel; Mora, Antonio J. (16 يناير 2019). "Thousands of women march across Spain against far-right party Vox". El País (in الإنجليزية). ISSN 1134-6582. Retrieved 2 مايو 2019.
  188. ^ González, Miguel (29 أبريل 2019). "Vox enters Congress for the first time but falls short of expectations". El País (in الإنجليزية). ISSN 1134-6582. Archived from the original on 30 أبريل 2019. Retrieved 2 مايو 2019.
  189. ^ Jones, Sam (23 أبريل 2019). "Spain's general election 2019: all you need to know". The Guardian (in الإنجليزية البريطانية). ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 2 مايو 2019.
  190. ^ Reuters, Source (29 أبريل 2019). "'The future has won,' says Spain's Socialist party leader after election victory – video report". The Guardian (in الإنجليزية البريطانية). ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 2 مايو 2019. {{cite news}}: |last= has generic name (help)
  191. ^ Rydgren, 2006, pp. 33–34.
  192. ^ Rydgren, 2006, p. 54.
  193. ^ Jake Wallis Simons (14 مايو 2014). "EU elections 2014: 'I can hear the boots of the 1930s marching through Europe'". The Telegraph. Archived from the original on 11 يناير 2022. Retrieved 31 أغسطس 2018.
  194. ^ Skenderovic 2009, p. 124: "... and prefers to use terms such as 'national-conservative' or 'conservative-right' in defining the SVP. In particular, 'national-conservative' has gained prominence among the definitions used in Swiss research on the SVP".
  195. ^ Geden 2006, p. 95.
  196. ^ Ignazi 2006, p. 234.
  197. ^ H-G Betz, 'Xenophobia, Identity Politics and Exclusionary Populism in Western Europe', L. Panitch & C. Leys (eds.), Socialist Register 2003 – Fighting Identities: Race, Religion and Ethno-nationalism, London: Merlin Press, 2002, p. 198
  198. ^ "Antisemitism And Racism in Switzerland 2000-1". Archived from the original on 21 أبريل 2002. Retrieved 3 يناير 2015.
  199. ^ "Antisemitism and Racism in Switzerland 1999–2000". tau.ac.il. Archived from the original on 25 أكتوبر 2007. Retrieved 28 أبريل 2017.
  200. ^ "Anti-immigration party wins Swiss election in 'slide to the Right'". The Daily Telegraph. Reuters. 19 أكتوبر 2015. Archived from the original on 11 يناير 2022. Retrieved 19 أكتوبر 2015.
  201. ^ "Anti-immigration SVP wins Swiss election in big swing to right". BBC News. 19 أكتوبر 2015. Retrieved 19 أكتوبر 2015.
  202. ^ Larson, Nina (19 أكتوبر 2015). "Swiss parliament shifts to right in vote dominated by migrant fears". Yahoo!. AFP. Retrieved 19 أكتوبر 2015.
  203. ^ "Amid rising fears over refugees, far-right party gains ground in Swiss election". Deutsche Welle. 19 أكتوبر 2015. Retrieved 19 أكتوبر 2015.
  204. ^ Kenny, Sue; Ife, Jim; Westoby, Peter, eds. (2014). Populism, Democracy and Community Development. Policy Press. ISBN 9781447353874. The most recognised right-wing UK populist politician of recent time was Margaret Thatcher, who became leader of the Conservative Party in 1975, and in 1979 the first British woman prime minister.
  205. ^ Ashkenas, Jeremy; Aisch, Gregor (5 ديسمبر 2016). "European Populism in the Age of Donald Trump". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 24 مارس 2017.
  206. ^ "Who wants to leave the European Union?". The Telegraph (in الإنجليزية البريطانية). Archived from the original on 11 يناير 2022. Retrieved 24 مارس 2017.
  207. ^ Goodwin & Milazzo 2015, pp. 172, 231; Heywood 2015, p. 139.
  208. ^ Merrick, Jane; Rentoul, John (19 يناير 2014). "Ukip tops Independent on Sunday poll as the nation's favourite party". The Independent. London.
  209. ^ "Poll says Labour still on course for 2015 victory – but UKIP is now Britain's 'favourite' political party". mirror.co.uk. 18 يناير 2014. Retrieved 3 يناير 2015.
  210. ^ Ross, Tim (19 مايو 2013). "Tories begin defecting to Ukip over 'loons' slur". The Daily Telegraph. London. Archived from the original on 11 يناير 2022.
  211. ^ Levitz, Eric (30 يونيو 2016). "Boris Johnson Brexit But Won't Buy it". New York.
  212. ^ "Populism's Latest Twist: An Aristocrat Could Be Britain's Prime Minister". New York Observer. 14 يوليو 2017.
  213. ^ أ ب Ingle, Stephen (2008). The British Party System: An Introduction. Routledge. p. 156.
  214. ^ "Who's who in the Liberals' left, right and centre factions?". 20 مارس 2021.
  215. ^ أ ب "The mice that may yet roar: who are the minor right-wing parties?". The Conversation. 28 أغسطس 2013.
  216. ^ Tessa Szyszkowitz (8 أكتوبر 2019). "Austria: The Successful Populist". Royal United Services Institute.
  217. ^ أ ب ت ث ج ح خ د Hans-Jürgen Bieling (2015). "Uneven development and 'European crisis constitutionalism', or the reasons for and conditions of a 'passive revolution in trouble'". In Johannes Jäger; Elisabeth Springler (eds.). Asymmetric Crisis in Europe and Possible Futures: Critical Political Economy and Post-Keynesian Perspectives. Routledge. p. 110. ISBN 978-1-317-65298-4.
  218. ^ أ ب ت Peter Starke; Alexandra Kaasch; Franca Van Hooren (2013). The Welfare State as Crisis Manager: Explaining the Diversity of Policy Responses to Economic Crisis. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 193. ISBN 978-1-137-31484-0.
  219. ^ "De partido sem ideologia a sigla dos "leões conservadores": Como o PTB quer atrair Bolsonaro".
  220. ^ "Прокуратурата поиска заличаване и разпускане на партия "Възраждане"". 20 يوليو 2020.
  221. ^ "How Kellie Leitch touched off a culture war – Macleans.ca". macleans.ca. 23 سبتمبر 2016. Retrieved 21 ديسمبر 2016.
  222. ^ "Groundswell of right-wing populism will test our Canadian resolve, readers say". The Toronto Star. 26 نوفمبر 2016.
  223. ^ "The popular comeback of populist politics". Toronto Sun.
  224. ^ "Kellie Leitch latches on to Trump victory – Macleans.ca". www.macleans.ca.
  225. ^ Blackman, Jesse (24 نوفمبر 2016). "The Conservative Party of Canada is ripe for a populist takeover".
  226. ^ "Chile Prepares to Choose a New Direction". Foreign Policy. 16 نوفمبر 2021.
  227. ^ "Populismo religioso en las urnas". El País. 2019.
  228. ^ Reid, Michael (2018). "La sombra de la vuelta al populismo". El País.
  229. ^ "Populismo de derechas". Thinking Heads. 2018.
  230. ^ Zúñiga Umaña, Fernando (2018). "Elecciones políticas en Costa Rica: vísperas de caos". Mundo.
  231. ^ Prnjak, Hrvoje (7 مارس 2020). "Projekt za vlast Miroslava Škore: novi vođa populista nada se Plenkovićevoj pobjedi, a nakon toga aktivirat će uhodani plan za 30 zastupnika u Saboru". slobodnadalmacija.hr. Retrieved 17 يونيو 2020.
  232. ^ Wölfl, Adelheid. "Kroatischer Premier will Pandemie für vorgezogene Wahlen nutzen". Der Standart. Retrieved 18 يونيو 2020.
  233. ^ "After Loss in Austria, a Look at Europe's Right-wing Parties". Haaretz. 24 مايو 2016.
  234. ^ Nordsieck, Wolfram (2017). "Czechia". Parties and Elections in Europe.
  235. ^ أ ب ت ث ج ح خ د ذ ر ز س ش Pausch, Robert (4 فبراير 2015). "Populismus oder Extremismus? – Radikale Parteien in Europa". Retrieved 28 أبريل 2017 – via Die Zeit.
  236. ^ أ ب Daniele Caramani; Yves Mény (2005). Challenges to Consensual Politics: Democracy, Identity, and Populist Protest in the Alpine Region. Peter Lang. p. 151. ISBN 978-90-5201-250-6.
  237. ^ "Contentious politics in the Baltics: the 'new' wave of right-wing populism in Estonia". openDemocracy. 28 أبريل 2016.
  238. ^ Ivaldi, Gilles (2018). "Crowding the market: the dynamics of populist and mainstream competition in the 2017 French presidential elections". p. 6.
  239. ^ Nordsieck, Wolfram (2019). "Greece". Parties and Elections in Europe.
  240. ^ "Athens' youngest mayor: I'm interested in real life, not utopias". The Guardian. 4 يونيو 2019.
  241. ^ Betz, Hans-Georg (1994). Radical Right-Wing Populism in Western Europe (The New Politics of Resentment). Palgrave MacMillan. p. 4. ISBN 978-0-312-08390-8. the majority of radical right-wing populist parties are radical in their rejection of the established socio-cultural and socio-political system
  242. ^ Wodak, Ruth (2013). Right-Wing Populism in Europe: Politics and Discourse. A&C Black. p. 23.
  243. ^ Prakash, Gyan (2010). Mumbai Fables. Princeton University Press. p. 9. ISBN 9780691142845.
  244. ^ Kaltwasser, Cristóbal Rovira (2017). The Oxford Handbook of Populism. Oxford University Press.
  245. ^ Carlo Ruzza; Stefano Fella (2009). Re-inventing the Italian Right: Territorial Politics, Populism and 'post-fascism'. Routledge. pp. 43–44. ISBN 978-1-134-28634-8.
  246. ^ Liang, Kristina (2016). Europe for the Europeans: The Foreign and Security Policy of the Populist Radical Right. Routledge. p. 187.
  247. ^ Langford, Barry (2017). All Together Now. Biteback Publishing. Netanyahu, leader of the right-wing populist party Likud, ran for re-election
  248. ^ "Right-wing Populism Wins in Britain and Israel". Haaretz. 3 يوليو 2016.
  249. ^ "Opinion | To remain prime minister, Netanyahu might have to work with Israeli Arabs". The Washington Post. 24 مارس 2021. Retrieved 20 نوفمبر 2021.
  250. ^ Jönsson, Anton (1 أكتوبر 2020). "Populism in Israel: A study of the manifestation of populist rhetoric among Israeli right-wing political actors between 2015 and 2020" – via lup.lub.lu.se. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  251. ^ Rogenhofer, Julius Maximilian; Panievsky, Ayala (2020). "Antidemocratic populism in power: Comparing Erdoğan's Turkey with Modi's India and Netanyahu's Israel". Democratization. 27 (8): 1394–1412. doi:10.1080/13510347.2020.1795135. S2CID 225557801.
  252. ^ Narayanan Ganesan, ed. (2015). Bilateral Legacies in East and Southeast Asia. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. p. 67.
  253. ^ Hofmann, Reto (22 يونيو 2018). "Why Steve Bannon Admires Japan". The Diplomat. Retrieved 22 مارس 2021. In Japan, populist and extreme right-wing nationalism has found a home within the political establishment.
  254. ^ "Political factors and limitations that made the Abe administration the longest ever. (Japanese)". Newsweek Japan. 21 نوفمبر 2019. Retrieved 21 فبراير 2020. 一方で、日本維新の会は小さな政府論に右派的なポピュリズムを加えた政党ですが ...(On the other hand, the Japan Restoration Party is a political party that has added right-wing populism to its small government theory ...)
  255. ^ Tom Lansford (2019). Political Handbook of the World 2018–2019. "... the JRP was a right-wing, populist grouping that advocated deregulation, educational reform, ..."
  256. ^ Sawa, Tamamitsu (13 نوفمبر 2017). "Where Koike's new political party lost hope". The Japan Times. Retrieved 22 مارس 2021. All in all, the party gave the impression of pursuing a right-leaning populism. [...] In short, Kibo no To came off as nothing but a right-wing populist party that looked similar to but was indeed different from the LDP. {{cite news}}: Check |author-link= value (help)
  257. ^ Auers; Kasekamp, Comparing Radical-Right Populism in Estonia and Latvia, pp. 235–236 
  258. ^ Henningsen, Bernd; Etzold, Tobias; Hanne, Krister (15 سبتمبر 2017). The Baltic Sea Region: A Comprehensive Guide. BWV Verlag. p. 341. ISBN 9783830517276.
  259. ^ "Latvia".
  260. ^ "Gobzema partija – dāvana valdošajai politiskajai šķirai". neatkariga.nra.lv.
  261. ^ "In Liechtenstein, 38,378 of the world's wealthiest go to the polls". 7 فبراير 2021.
  262. ^ Verlag, Bielefeld (2014). "Doing Identity in Luxembourg". Transaction Publishers: 55. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  263. ^ "Rechts-populistische partijen: De verschillen en overeenkomsten". 14 مارس 2021.
  264. ^ Ljupcho Petkovski. Authoritarian Populism and Hegemony: Constructing 'the People' in Macedonia's illiberal discourse (PDF). Centre of Southeast European Studies.
  265. ^ Wolfram Nordsieck (2013). "Parties and Elections in Europe: Norway". www.parties-and-elections.eu. Parties and Elections in Europe.
  266. ^ Lambert, Peter (9 أغسطس 2012). "The Lightning Impeachment of Paraguay's President Lugo". E-International Relations. Retrieved 8 يوليو 2021.
  267. ^ "Fujimori refuerza su populismo con medidas conservadoras". El País (in الإسبانية). 8 أبريل 2016. Retrieved 20 أبريل 2016. La suma de aliados refuerza el populismo del fujimorismo. la lógica de la campaña de segunda vuelta de Fujimori es de "derecha populista" [...].
  268. ^ أ ب "Rechtspopulistische und rechtsextreme Parteien in Europa". Federal Agency for Civic Education. ديسمبر 2016.
  269. ^ "Portugal's Socialists win election, now eye alliances". Star Tribune. 7 أكتوبر 2019. Archived from the original on 7 أكتوبر 2019. Retrieved 11 أكتوبر 2019.
  270. ^ Henceroth, Nathan (2019). "Open Society Foundations". In Ainsworth, Scott H.; Harward, Brian M. (eds.). Political Groups, Parties, and Organizations that Shaped America. ABC-CLIO. p. 739.
  271. ^ Wolfram Nordsieck. "Parties and Elections in Europe". Retrieved 16 مارس 2015.
  272. ^ Kuhrt, Natasha (2014). Russia and the World. Routledge. p. 25.
  273. ^ "Serbien: Wahl im Schatten Vucics". 21 يونيو 2020.
  274. ^ "Serbia's populist, right-wing president projected to win reelection". NBC News. 4 أبريل 2022.
  275. ^ "The state of global right-wing populism in 2019". Quartz. 30 ديسمبر 2019.
  276. ^ Alica Rétiová. "A Hero Is Coming! The master narrative of Marián Kotleba in the Slovak regional election of 2013". Masaryk University. Retrieved 28 أبريل 2017.
  277. ^ "A right-wing extremist or people's protector? Media coverage of extreme right leader Marian Kotleba in 2013 regional elections in Slovakia | Kluknavská | Intersections. East European Journal of Society and Politics". Intersections.tk.mta.hu. Retrieved 9 ديسمبر 2016.
  278. ^ "Slowakei: Rechte wollen Fico verhindern". Der Standard (in الألمانية). Retrieved 28 أبريل 2017.
  279. ^ "ANC holds onto power in South Africa as other parties increase vote share". Times of India. 11 مايو 2019.
  280. ^ "Appendix A: Classifying European populist parties". Pew Research Center. 14 أكتوبر 2019.
  281. ^ Mazzoleni, Oskar (2007), The Swiss People's Party and the Foreign and Security Policy Since the 1990s, Ashgate, p. 223, ISBN 9780754648512, https://books.google.com/books?id=jXR5GzqvmyYC&pg=PA223 
  282. ^ "Les populistes brillent aux élections genevoises". Swissinfo (in الفرنسية). 11 أكتوبر 2009. Archived from the original on 26 سبتمبر 2012. Retrieved 11 أكتوبر 2009.
  283. ^ "Cross-Border Issues Cloud Geneva Election Result". Swissinfo. 11 نوفمبر 2013. Retrieved 15 ديسمبر 2016.
  284. ^ "NFP 40+ "Rechtsextremismus – Ursachen und Gegenmassnahmen" – SNF". www.snf.ch.
  285. ^ Gunes, Cengiz (2013). "The Kurdish Question in Turkey". Routledge: 270. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  286. ^ Abadan-Unat, Nermin (2011). Turks in Europe: From Guest Worker to Transnational Citizen. New York: Berghahn Books. p. 19. ISBN 9781845454258. ...the fascist Nationalist Movement Party...
  287. ^ SPIEGEL, Maximilian Popp, DER (18 أبريل 2018). "Türkei: Das steht hinter Recep Tayyip Erdogans Neuwahl-Coup – DER SPIEGEL – Politik". Der Spiegel.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  288. ^ "Istanbul: Erdogans Widersacher". 20 أبريل 2018.
  289. ^ Kuzio, Taras (November–December 2010), "Populism in Ukraine in a Comparative European Context", Problems of Post-Communism 57 (6): 3–18, doi:10.2753/ppc1075-8216570601, http://commonweb.unifr.ch/artsdean/pub/gestens/f/as/files/4760/25737_184750.pdf, retrieved on 16 October 2012, "Anti-Semitism only permeates Ukraine's far-right parties, such as Svoboda… Ukraine's economic nationalists are to be found in the extreme right (Svoboda) and centrist parties that propagate economic nationalism and economic protectionism." 
  290. ^ Ivaldi, Gilles (2011), The Populist Radical Right in European Elections 1979-2009, Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, p. 20, ISBN 9783525369227, https://books.google.com/books?id=RBnmachN8vkC&pg=PA20 
  291. ^ Panitch, Leo (2015). The Politics of the Right. NYU Press. p. ix.
  292. ^ Cassidy, John (29 فبراير 2016). "Donald Trump is Transforming the G.O.P. Into a Populist, Nativist Party". The New Yorker.
  293. ^ Gould, J.J. (2 يوليو 2016). "Why Is Populism Winning on the American Right?". The Atlantic.
  294. ^ "Der Rückfall ins Nationale". Deutsche Welle. 2011.
  295. ^ أ ب Eric Micklin (2015). "The Austrian Parliament and EU Affairs: Gradually Living Up to its Legal Potential". In Claudia Hefftler; Christine Neuhold; Olivier Rosenberg; et al. (eds.). The Palgrave Handbook of National Parliaments and the European Union. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 389. ISBN 978-1-137-28913-1.
  296. ^ Cas Mudde; Cristóbal Rovira Kaltwasser (2012). Populism in Europe and the Americas: Threat Or Corrective for Democracy?. Cambridge University Press. p. 27. ISBN 978-1-107-02385-7. Retrieved 30 يوليو 2013.
  297. ^ "European Election Database (EED)". uib.no. Retrieved 28 أبريل 2017.
  298. ^ Pauwels, Teun (2013). Belgium: Decline of National Populism?. Konrad-Adenauer-Stiftung, CES. p. 85. {{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help)
  299. ^ Historical Dictionary of the Republic of Macedonia, Dimitar Bechev, Scarecrow Press, 2009, ISBN 0810862956, p. 104.
  300. ^ Smilova, Ruzha; Smilov, Daniel; Ganev, Georgi (2012). Democracy and the Media in Bulgaria: Who Represents the People?. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 48–49. {{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help)
  301. ^ "Rechtspopulistische Parteien in Tschechien. - Vile Netzwerk". vile-netzwerk.de. Archived from the original on 29 يوليو 2017. Retrieved 28 أبريل 2017.
  302. ^ Paul Hainsworth (2008). The Extreme Right in Western Europe. Routledge. p. 49
  303. ^ Christina Schori Liang (2013). "'Nationalism Ensures Peaces': the Foreign and Security Policy of the German Populist Radical Right After Reunification". In Christina Schori Liang (ed.). Europe for the Europeans: The Foreign and Security Policy of the Populist Radical Right. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. p. 139. ISBN 978-1-4094-9825-4.
  304. ^ Lokaler Aktionsplan für Demokratie, Toleranz und für ein weltoffenes Chemnitz (LAP). Archived 8 ديسمبر 2012 at the Wayback Machine (PDF; 275 kB) Fortschreibung 2012. Stand: November 2011, veröffentlicht auf chemnitz.de
  305. ^ Swen Uhlig: NPD plant Aufmarsch in Chemnitz, freiepresse.de, 16. Februar 2010.
  306. ^ Antonis Galanopoulos: Greek right-wing populist parties and Euroscepticism(PDF), p.2 "Golden Dawn is also Eurosceptical and it is opposing Greece's participation in the European Union and the Eurozone"
  307. ^ Gemenis, Kostas (2008) "The 2007 Parliamentary Election in Greece", Mediterranean Politics 13: 95–101 and Gemenis, Kostas and Dinas, Elias (2009) "Confrontation still? Examining parties' policy positions in Greece[dead link]", Comparative European Politics.
  308. ^ Art, David (2011), Inside the Radical Right: The Development of Anti-Immigrant Parties in Western Europe, Cambridge University Press, p. 188, ISBN 9781139498838, https://books.google.com/books?id=9dUTXJakqLoC&q=popular+orthodox+rally+far+right&pg=PA188 
  309. ^ Tamadonfar, Mehran (2013). Religion and Regimes. Lexington Books. p. 125.
  310. ^ أ ب Wolfram Nordsieck. "Parties and Elections in Europe: The database about parliamentary elections and political parties in Europe, by Wolfram Nordsieck". Parties-and-elections.eu. Retrieved 27 أبريل 2014.
  311. ^ "BürgerUnion bei Wahlauftakt der Tiroler FPÖ" (in الألمانية). Retrieved 27 يناير 2018.
  312. ^ "Herr Pöder, was tun Sie bei Pegida?" (in de), Salto.bz, 13 January 2015, https://www.salto.bz/de/article/13012015/herr-poeder-was-tun-sie-bei-pegida, retrieved on 27 January 2018 
  313. ^ "Nicht wählen ist keine Lösung." (in de), Brennerbasisdemokratie.eu, 25 February 2018, http://www.brennerbasisdemokratie.eu/?p=39253, retrieved on 27 January 2018 
  314. ^ Balcere, Ilze (2011), Comparing Populist Political Parties in the Baltic States and Western Europe, European Consortium for Political Research, pp. 5–6, http://www.ecprnet.eu/MyECPR/proposals/reykjavik/uploads/papers/1071.pdf [dead link]
  315. ^ Berend, Iván T. (2010), Europe Since 1980, Cambridge University Press, p. 134 
  316. ^ "Wolfram Nordsieck, Parties and Elections in Europe". Retrieved 11 ديسمبر 2013.
  317. ^ Wodak, Ruth; Mral, Brigitte (2013). Right-Wing Populism in Europe: Politics and Discourse. A&C Black. p. 19.
  318. ^ "Populism in the Balkans. The Case of Serbia" (PDF). Retrieved 24 يناير 2017.
  319. ^ "Desni populisti i ekstremisti u Europi". Deutsche Welle. Retrieved 13 ديسمبر 2018.
  320. ^ Golder, M. (2003). "Explaining Variation in the Success of Extreme Right Parties in Western Europe". Comparative Political Studies. 36 (4): 432. doi:10.1177/0010414003251176. S2CID 55841713.
  321. ^ Evans, Jocelyn A.J. (أبريل 2005). "The dynamics of social change in radical right-wing populist party support". Comparative European Politics. 3 (1): 76–101. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.199.7394. doi:10.1057/palgrave.cep.6110050. S2CID 7805751.
  322. ^ "Lords by party, type of peerage and gender". Parliament of the United Kingdom. 8 مارس 2013. Retrieved 13 يوليو 2017.
  323. ^ Simon Langlois; Jean-Paul Baillargeon; Gary Caldwell; Guy Fréchet; Madeleine Gauthier; Jean-Pierre Simard (1992). Recent Social Trends in Quebec, 1960-1990. McGill-Queen's Press - MQUP. p. 369. ISBN 978-0-7735-0879-8.
  324. ^ Garth Stevenson (2004). Unfulfilled Union, 5th Edition: Canadian Federalism and National Unity. McGill-Queen's Press - MQUP. p. 108. ISBN 978-0-7735-3632-6.
  325. ^ Theodore R. Marmor; Richard Freeman; Kieke G. H. Okma (2009). Comparative Studies and the Politics of Modern Medical Care. Yale University Press. p. 81. ISBN 978-0-300-15595-2.
  326. ^ Amir Abedi (2004). Anti-Political Establishment Parties: A Comparative Analysis. Routledge. p. 39. ISBN 978-1-134-36369-8.
  327. ^ Carol Gould; Pasquale Paquino (2001). Cultural Identity and the Nation-state. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 39. ISBN 978-0-8476-9677-2.
  328. ^ Ian Budge; David Robertson; Derek Hearl (1987). Ideology, Strategy and Party Change: Spatial Analyses of Post-War Election Programmes in 19 Democracies. Cambridge University Press. p. 90. ISBN 978-0-521-30648-5.
  329. ^ Nathalie Tocci (2007). Greece, Turkey and Cyprus. Oxford University Press. p. 125. {{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help)
  330. ^ Stefan Engert (2010). EU Enlargement and Socialization: Turkey and Cyprus. Routledge. p. 146.
  331. ^ "Croatia's conservatives reject rightwing populism with new leader". Financial Times. 18 يوليو 2016.
  332. ^ Klausmann, Alexandra (21 مايو 2010). "Tschechien: Jugend vereint gegen Linksparteien". Wiener Zeitung (in الألمانية). Archived from the original on 6 يونيو 2011.
  333. ^ "Czech elections: An angry electorate", The Economist, 25 October 2013, https://www.economist.com/blogs/easternapproaches/2013/10/czech-elections 
  334. ^ Paul Hainsworth (2008). The Extreme Right in Europe. Routledge. p. 49. ISBN 978-1-134-15432-6.
  335. ^ Alexander Häusler (Hrsg.): Rechtspopulismus als „Bürgerbewegung“. Kampagnen gegen Islam und Moscheebau und kommunale Gegenstrategien. VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften, Wiesbaden 2008, ISBN 978-3-531-15919-5.
  336. ^ "Obdachlose Rechtspopulisten", Süddeutsche Zeitung, 11 January 2011, http://www.sueddeutsche.de/politik/partei-die-freiheit-obdachlose-rechtspopulisten-1.1045138, retrieved on 30 August 2011 
  337. ^ "Pro Köln unterliegt vor Gericht", FOCUS, 10 July 2009, http://www.focus.de/politik/deutschland/rechtspopulisten-pro-koeln-unterliegt-vor-gericht_aid_415839.html, retrieved on 19 October 2011 
  338. ^ "Pro Deutschland protestiert vor Norwegen-Botschaft", Berliner Morgenpost, 25 July 2011, http://www.morgenpost.de/berlin-aktuell/article1711860/Pro-Deutschland-protestiert-vor-Norwegen-Botschaft.html, retrieved on 19 October 2011 
  339. ^ Kristian Frigelj: Rechtspopulisten planen Anti-Minarett-Kampagne. In: Die Welt, 14. Dezember 2009.
  340. ^ أ ب Christina Bergqvist, ed. (1999). Equal Democracies?: Gender and Politics in the Nordic Countries. Nordic Council of Ministers. p. 320. ISBN 978-82-00-12799-4.
  341. ^ De Lange, Sarah L. (2008), Radical Right-wing Populist Parties in Government: determinants of coalition membership, p. 9, http://www.unc.edu/depts/europe/conferences/poc2008/papers/DeLange_RightWingPopulistParties.pdf 
  342. ^ Foster, Malcolm (16 ديسمبر 2012). "Japan Elections 2012: LDP Wins Majority In Parliamentary Elections". HuffPost. Archived from the original on 19 ديسمبر 2012. Retrieved 7 نوفمبر 2020.
  343. ^ Soble, Jonathan (17 ديسمبر 2012). "Portrait of Japan's main political parties". Financial Times. Nikkei, Inc. Retrieved 6 نوفمبر 2020. Politics: Populist right
  344. ^ Wingfield-Hayes, Rupert (15 ديسمبر 2012). "Japan loses faith in traditional politics". BBC News. Retrieved 6 نوفمبر 2012. There is growing support here for non-traditional parties, particularly right-wing populists who promise strong leadership and bold answers. The most prominent is the Japan Restoration Party led by two political mavericks - Toru Hashimoto, the Mayor of Osaka, and 80-year-old Shintaro Ishihara, the former governor of Tokyo.
  345. ^ أ ب David Art (2011). "Memory Politics in Western Europe". In Uwe Backes; Patrick Moreau (eds.). The Extreme Right in Europe: Current Trends and Perspectives. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. p. 361. ISBN 978-3-647-36922-8.
  346. ^ Andeweg, R. and G. Irwin Politics and Governance in the Netherlands, Basingstoke (Palgrave) p.49
  347. ^ "Serbien: Wahl im Schatten Vucics". 21 يونيو 2020.
  348. ^ Jang Hoon (4 أبريل 2018). "Liberty Korea Party, conservative populism has no future". JoongAng Ilbo. Retrieved 5 أبريل 2018.
  349. ^ Anglada: "Being populist and identitarian is being honestly democratic" Archived 3 أكتوبر 2011 at the Wayback Machine Minuto Digital (Spanish)

Bibliography

  • Berlet, Chip and Matthew N. Lyons. 2000. Right-Wing Populism in America: Too Close for Comfort. New York: Guilford Press. ISBN 1-57230-568-1, ISBN 1-57230-562-2.
  • Betz, Hans-Georg. Radical right-wing populism in Western Europe. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 1994 ISBN 0-312-08390-4.
  • Betz, Hans-Georg and Immerfall, Stefan. The New Politics of the Right: Neo-Populist Parties and Movements in Established Democracies. Houndsmill, Basingstoke, Hampshire, UK, Macmillan Press Ltd., 1998 ISBN 978-0-312-21338-1,
  • Dolgert, Stefan (2016). "The Praise of Ressentiment [ك‍]: Or, How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love Donald Trump". New Political Science. 38 (3): 354–370. doi:10.1080/07393148.2016.1189030. S2CID 147965459.
  • Fielitz, Maik; Laloire, Laura Lotte (eds.) (2016). Trouble on the Far Right. Contemporary Right-Wing Strategies and Practices in Europe. Bielefeld: transcript. ISBN 978-3-8376-3720-5.
  • Fritzsche, Peter. 1990. Rehearsals for Fascism: Populism and Political Mobilization in Weimar Germany. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-505780-5.
  • Geden, Oliver (2006). Diskursstrategien im Rechtspopulismus: Freiheitliche Partei Österreichs und Schweizerische Volkspartei zwischen Opposition und Regierungsbeteiligung [Discourse Strategies in Right-Wing Populism: Freedom Party of Austria and Swiss People's Party between Opposition and Government Participation] (in الألمانية). Wiesbaden, Germany: VS Verlag. doi:10.1007/978-3-531-90430-6. ISBN 978-3-531-15127-4.
  • Goodwin, Matthew; Milazzo, Caitlin (2015). UKIP: Inside the Campaign to Redraw the Map of British Politics. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0198736110.
  • Greven, Thomas (2016). The Rise of Right-wing Populism in Europe and the United States: A Comparative Perspective (PDF). Berlin: Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung. Retrieved 9 أغسطس 2016.
  • Heywood, Andrew (2015). Essentials of UK Politics (3rd ed.). London: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-1-137-53074-5.
  • Ignazi, Piero (2002). "The Extreme Right: Defining the Object and Assessing the Causes". In Schain, Martin; Zolberg, Aristide R.; Hossay, Patrick (eds.). Shadows over Europe: The Development and Impact of the Extreme Right in Western Europe. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-312-29593-6.
  •  ———  (2006) [2003]. Extreme Right Parties in Western Europe. Comparative Politics. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-929159-5.
  • Kaplan, Jeffrey; Weinberg, Leonard (1998). The Emergence of a Euro-American Radical Right. New Brunswick, New Jersey: Rutgers University Press. ISBN 978-0-8135-2564-8.
  • Norris, Pippa (2005). Radical Right: Voters and Parties in the Electoral Market. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-84914-2.
  • Skenderovic, Damir (2009). The Radical Right in Switzerland: Continuity and Change, 1945–2000. New York: Berghahn Books. ISBN 978-1-84545-580-4. JSTOR j.ctt9qcntn.

Further reading

External links

تمّ الاسترجاع من "https://www.marefa.org/w/index.php?title=شعبوية_يمينية&oldid=3853326"