معاهدة برلين (1878)
معاهدة برلين Treaty of Berlin، كانت الفصل الأخير من مؤتمر برلين (13 يونيو - 13 يوليو 1878)، والتي بمقتضاها المملكة المتحدة، النمسا-المجر، فرنسا، ألمانيا، إيطاليا، روسيا، والدولة العثمانية تحت حكم السلطان عبد الحميد الثاني نقحت معاهدة سان ستفانو الموقعة في 3 مارس من العام نفسه.[1] أهم مهام المؤتمر كانت البت في مصير إمارة بلغاريا التي تأسست في معاهدة سان ستفانو،[2] رغم أن بلغاريا نفسها كانت قد استبعدت من المشاركة في المحادثات بناء على إصرار روسيا.[2][3] في الوقت نفسه، مع عدم وجودها على خريطة العالم، لم تكن بلغاريا خاضعة للقانون الدولي، وكذلك البلغاريون أنفسهم. هذا الاستبعاد كان حقيقة قائمة بالفعل في مؤتمر القسطنطينية للقوى العظمى، الذي عقد قبل عام بدون مشاركة بلغاريا.
| معاهدة بريطانيا العظمى، النمسا-المجر، فرنسا، ألمانيا، إيطاليا، روسيا، وتركيا، لتسوية شؤون الشرق | |
|---|---|
 جنوب أوروپا بعد مؤتمر برلين | |
| السياق | مؤتمر برلين، بعد الحرب الروسية التركية (1877–78)، أثناء اللعبة الكبرى لدبلوماسيات القوى العظمى. |
| وُقـِّعت | 13 يوليو 1878 |
| المكان | برلين، الامبراطورية الألمانية |
| الأطراف | |
اعترفتة المعاهدة رسمياً باستقلال الإمارات السيادية بحكم الأمر الواقع لرومانيا، صربيا والجبل الأسود، مع الحكم الذاتي لبلغاريا،
اعترفت المعاهدة رسمياً باستقلال بحكم الأمر الواقع الإمارات السيادية رومانيا، صربيا والجبل الأسود، مع الحكم الذاتي لبلغاريا، على الرغم من أن الأخيرة كانت بحكم الأمر الواقع تمارس استقلالها وكانت مقسمة إلى ثلاثة أقسام: إمارة بلغارية، إمارة شرق رومليا ذاتية الحكم، ومقدونيا، والتي عادت للعثمانيين،[4] وبالتالي التراجع عن الخطط الروسية لإنشاء بلغاريا كبرى مستقلة محبة لروسيا. أسست معاهدة سان ستفانو دولة بلغارية، وهو كان أعظم ما يخشاه بريطانيا العظمى والنمسا-المجر.[5]
في شرق الأناضول، أكدت معاهدة برلين المكاسب الروسية التي استحوذت عليها من الدولة العثمانية خاصة بواسطة معاهدة سان ستفانو، بالرغم من عودة وادي ألاشكرد وبلدة دوغوبايزيد للعثمانيين.[6] معظم الأراضي التي فازت بها روسيا (أبرزها باستثناء باطوم وأجاريا الكبرى) أصبحت جزءاً من تركيا في أعقاب انهيار الدولة العثمانية وصعود الاتحاد السوڤيتي.
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خلفية
Paris Peace Treaty of 1856, which ended the Crimean War, had made the Black Sea a neutral territory. The treaty had protected the Ottoman Empire, ended the Holy Alliance (Austria, Prussia and Russia) and weakened Russia's overall position. In 1870, Russia invoked the doctrine of rebus sic stantibus and effectively terminated the treaty by breaching provisions concerning the neutrality of the Black Sea. The great powers became increasingly convinced that the Ottoman Empire would not be able to hold its territories in Europe.[7]
In 1875, the Herzegovina uprising resulted in the Great Eastern Crisis. As the conflict in the Balkans intensified, atrocities during the 1876 April Uprising in Bulgaria inflamed anti-Turkish sentiments in Russia and Britain, which eventually culminated in the Russo-Turkish War of 1877.[7]
المفوضون
المملكة المتحدة
الإمبراطورية الألمانية وپروسيا
النمسا-المجر
- گيولا، كونت أندراسي، النمسا-المجر
- الكونت ألايوس كارولي، السفير في برلين
- البارون هاينرش كارل فون هايمرله، السفير في روما
الجمهورية الفرنسية الثالثة
- وليام هنري وادنگتون، الكونت سان-ڤالييه، السفير في برلين ووزير الخارجية
- Félix Hippolyte Desprez، مدير الشؤون السياسية في وزارة الشؤون الخارجية
الإمبراطورية الروسية
- ألكسندر، أمير گورچاكوڤ، مستشار ووزير الخارجية
- الكونت پيوتر شوڤالوڤ، السفير إلى بلاط سانت جيمس
- پول دوبريل، السفير في برلين
الدولة العثمانية
- ألكسندر قرة ثيودوري پاشا، وزير الأشعال العامة
- علي پاشا، مشير في الجيوش العثمانية
- سعد الله باي (tr)، السفير في برلين
البنود
The treaty formally recognized the independence of the de facto sovereign principalities of Romania, Serbia and Montenegro and the autonomy of Bulgaria although the latter de facto functioned independently and was divided into three parts: the Principality of Bulgaria, the autonomous province of Eastern Rumelia, and Macedonia, which was given back to the Ottomans,[9] thus undoing Russian plans for an independent and Russophile "Greater Bulgaria". The Treaty of San Stefano had created a Bulgarian state, which was just what Britain and Austria-Hungary feared the most.[10]
The Treaty of Berlin confirmed most of the Russian gains from the Ottoman Empire specified in the Treaty of San Stefano, such as Batumi and Adjara, but the valley of Alashkerd and the town of Bayazid were returned to the Ottomans.[11] The ru (Treaty of Constantinople (1879)) was a further continuation of negotiations. It reaffirmed the provisions of the Treaty of San Stefano which had not been modified by the Berlin Treaty and established amounts of compensation that the Ottoman Empire owed to Russia for losses to businesses and institutions during the war. It granted amnesty to Ottoman subjects and for release of prisoners of war.[12][13] In addition, Article VII of the treaty provided that in the territory acquired by Russia, subjects could choose whether they wished to be Ottoman or Russian subjects for a period of six months after the agreement became effective.[13][14]
Despite the pleas of the Romanian delegates, Romania was forced to cede southern Bessarabia to the Russian Empire.[15] As a compensation, Romania received Dobruja, including the Danube Delta.[15] The treaty also limited the Russian occupation of Bulgaria to 9 months, which limited the time during which Russian troops and supplies could be moved through Romanian territory.[15]
The three newly independent states subsequently proclaimed themselves kingdoms: Romania in 1881, Serbia in 1882 and Montenegro in 1910, and Bulgaria proclaimed full independence in 1908 after it had united with Eastern Rumelia in 1885. Austria-Hungary annexed Bosnia in 1908, sparking the Bosnian crisis, a major European crisis that reinforced pre-World War I alliances.[16]
The Treaty of Berlin accorded special legal status to some religious groups and also would serve as a model for the Minority Treaties, which would be established within the framework of the League of Nations.[17] It stipulated that Romania recognize non-Christians (Jews and Muslims) as full citizens. It also vaguely called for a border rectification between Greece and the Ottoman Empire, which occurred after protracted negotiations in 1881, with the transfer of Thessaly to Greece.[بحاجة لمصدر]
In the "Salisbury Circular" of 1 April, British Foreign Secretary, the Marquess of Salisbury, made clear his own and his government's objections to the Treaty of San Stefano and its favourable position of Russia.[18] Historian AJP Taylor wrote, "If the treaty of San Stefano had been maintained, both the Ottoman Empire and Austria-Hungary might have survived to the present day. The British, except for Beaconsfield in his wilder moments, had expected less and were, therefore, less disappointed. Salisbury wrote at the end of 1878: 'We shall set up a rickety sort of Turkish rule again south of the Balkans. But it is a mere respite. There is no vitality left in them. The treaty also calls on the parties involved to attack the nation that violates the treaty.'"[19]
The Kosovo Vilayet remained part of the Ottoman Empire. Austria-Hungary was allowed to station military garrisons in the Ottoman Vilayet of Bosnia and the Sanjak of Novi Pazar. The Vilayet of Bosnia was placed under Austro-Hungarian occupation although it formally remained part of the Ottoman Empire until it was annexed by Austria-Hungary thirty years later, on 5 October 1908. The Austro-Hungarian garrisons in the Sanjak of Novi Pazar were withdrawn in 1908, after the annexation of the Vilayet of Bosnia and the resulting Bosnian Crisis,[16] to reach a compromise with the Ottoman Empire, which was struggling with internal strife because of the Young Turk Revolution (1908). The chaotic situation in the Ottoman Empire also allowed Bulgaria to formally declare its independence on 5 October 1908.[بحاجة لمصدر]
النتائج
انظر أيضاً
المصادر
- ^ Hertslet, Edward (1891), "Treaty between Great Britain, Austria-Hungary, France, Germany, Italy, Russia, and Turkey, for the Settlement of the Affairs of the East, signed at Berlin, 13th July 1878", The Map of Europe by Treaty; which have taken place since the general peace of 1814. With numerous maps and notes, IV (1875–1891) (First ed.), London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office, pp. 2759-98, http://archive.org/stream/mapofeuropebytre04hert#page/2758/mode/2up, retrieved on 2013-01-02
- ^ أ ب Krasner, Stephen D. (1999). Sovereignty: Organized Hypocrisy. Princeton University Press. p. 165. ISBN 0-691-00711-X.
- ^
Bourchier, James David (1911). . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). دائرة المعارف البريطانية (eleventh ed.). Cambridge University Press. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=(help) - ^ Jelavich, Barbara (2004). Russia and the Formation of the Romanian National State, 1821–1878. Cambridge University Press. p. 286. ISBN 0-521-52251-X.
- ^ Crampton, R. J. (2005). A Concise History of Bulgaria. Cambridge University Press. p. 84. ISBN 0-521-85085-1.
- ^ Schem, Alexander Jacob (1878). "Chapter IX [Third Book]: The Berlin Congress". War in the East: An Illustrated History of the Conflict Between Russia and Turkey, With a Review of the Eastern Question. H.S. Goodspeed & Co. p. 685-700.
- ^ أ ب Bogaert, Sina Van den. "Berlin Congress (1878)". Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law [MPEPIL]. Retrieved 15 December 2017.
- ^ Phillips, Walter Alison (1911). . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). دائرة المعارف البريطانية (eleventh ed.). Cambridge University Press.
{{cite encyclopedia}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=(help) - ^ Jelavich, Barbara (2004). Russia and the Formation of the Romanian National State, 1821–1878. Cambridge University Press. p. 286. ISBN 0-521-52251-X.
- ^ Crampton, R. J. (2005). A Concise History of Bulgaria. Cambridge University Press. p. 84. ISBN 0-521-85085-1.
- ^ Schem, Alexander Jacob (1878). "Chapter IX [Third Book]: The Berlin Congress". War in the East: An Illustrated History of the Conflict Between Russia and Turkey, With a Review of the Eastern Question. H.S. Goodspeed & Co. pp. 685–700.
- ^ "КОНСТАНТИНО́ПОЛЬСКИЙ МИР 1879" [Peace of Constantinople 1879] (in Russian). Great Russian Encyclopedia. Archived from the original on 19 February 2022. Retrieved 19 February 2022.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unrecognized language (link) - ^ أ ب "The Definitive Treaty of Peace between Russia and the Porte: Signed at Constantinople on 8th February,1879". American Journal of International Law (in French). Cambridge University Press for the American Society of International Law. 2 (4 Supplemental): 424–426. October 1908. doi:10.2307/2212671. ISSN 0002-9300. JSTOR 2212671. OCLC 5545378434. S2CID 246006401. Retrieved 19 February 2022.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unrecognized language (link) - ^ Lohr, Eric (2012). Russian Citizenship: From Empire to Soviet Union. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. pp. 39–40. ISBN 978-0-674-06634-2.[dead link]
- ^ أ ب ت Hitchins, Keith (1994). Rumania: 1866–1947. Oxford History of Modern Europe. Oxford University Press. p. 50. ISBN 0-19-822126-6.
- ^ أ ب Bosnian Crisis
- ^ Buergenthal, Thomas (1 July 2002). International Human Rights in a Nutshell (Third ed.). West Publishing Company. p. 7. ISBN 0-314-26014-5.
- ^ Walker, Christopher J. (1980), Armenia: The Survival of A Nation, London: Croom Helm, p. 112
- ^ Taylor, A. J. P. (1954). The Struggle for Mastery in Europe 1848–1918. Oxford University Press. p. 253. ISBN 0-19-881270-1.
- ^ The Lion's Roused At Last
مراجع أساسية
- European commission for Eastern Roumelia (1880). Report presented to the international commission at Constantinople [European commission for Eastern Roumelia as to the state of Macedonia since the treaty of Berlin.
- Gladstone, William Ewart (1878). The Berlin Treaty and the Anglo-Turkish Convention: speech of the Right Hon. W.E. Gladstone, M.P. in the House of Commons on Tuesday, July 30th, 1878.
- Gladstone, William Ewart (1916). "The Treaty of Berlin, July 30th, 1878". Gladstone's Speeches, Descriptive Index and Bibliography by Arthur Tilney Bassett with a Preface by Viscount Bryce, O.M. and Introduction to the Selected Speeches by Herbert Paul. London: Methuen & Co. pp. 505–52.
- Medlicott, W. N. (1963). The Congress of Berlin and After: A Diplomatic History of the Near East Settlement, 1878–1880 (Second edition ed.). London: Frank Cass.
{{cite book}}:|edition=has extra text (help)
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قراءات إضافية
- Millman, Richard (1979). Britain and the Eastern question, 1875–1878. Clarendon Press. ISBN 978-0-19-822379-5.
- Taylor, A. J. P. (1954). The struggle for mastery in Europe: 1848–1918. Oxford University Press.
- Yavuz; Sluglett, Peter, eds. (2012). War and Diplomacy: The Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878 and the Treaty of Berlin. University of Utah Press. ISBN 978-1-60781-150-3.
- Goldfrank, David M. (2003). "Berlin, Congress of". In Millar, James R. (ed.). Encyclopedia of Russian History. Macmillan Reference USA. ISBN 978-0028656939.