المعرفة

جمهورية برلمانية

جمهورية برلمانية مصطلح يطلق على الدول التي يكون نظام حكمها قائم على البرلمان، فتشكيل الوزارة لابد أن يحظى بأغلبية من البرلمان وكذلك سن القوانين واعتماد الميزانية. يتكون النظام البرلماني من سلطة تنفيذية ممثلة في الوزراة ورأس الدولة والسلطة تشريعية ممثلة في البرلمان.

على النقيض من الجمهورية الرئاسية، فإن رئيس الدولة لا يملك صلاحيات تنفيذية واسعة كالتي يملكها الرئيس التنفيذي حيث تكون هذه الصلاحيات بأيدي رئيس الحكومة والذي في الأغلب يكون رئيس الوزراء.

Forms of government.svg
أنظمة الحكم
الصيغ الجمهورية للحكم:
  الجمهوريات الرئاسية with an executive presidency separate from the legislature
  Semi-presidential system with both an executive presidency and a separate head of government that leads the rest of the executive, who is appointed by the president and accountable to the legislature
  Parliamentary republics with a ceremonial and non-executive president, where a separate head of government leads the executive and is dependent on the confidence of the legislature
  Republics in which a combined head or directory of state and government is elected or nominated by the legislature
  One-party states in which all other parties are either outlawed or only enjoy limited and controlled participation in elections.
الصيغ الملكية للحكم:
  الملكيات الدستورية with a ceremonial and non-executive monarch, where a separate head of government leads the executive
  الملكيات شبه الدستورية with a ceremonial monarch, but where royalty still hold significant executive or legislative power
  الملكيات المطلقة where the monarch leads the executive
  Countries where constitutional provisions for government have been suspended
  Countries which do not fit any of the above systems (e.g. provisional government or unclear political situations)

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رأس الدولة

يكون رئيساً منتخباً وهو في هذا النظام لايتمتع بسلطات حقيقية، ولكنه يمارس سلطاته من خلال الوزراة فهو يعتبر منصب شرفي لإكمال هيكله الدولة. يتم إختيار رأس الدولة إما بالانتخاب البرلماني أو الانتخاب العام من قبل الشعب.


البرلمان

يتكون من مجلس أو مجلسين أحدهما ديمقراطي منتخب مباشرة من الشعب والاخر ديمقراطي نسبياً. وللبرلمان عدة سلطات أهمها مناقشة واعتماد مشروع الموازنة العامة للدولة الذي تقدمه الوزارة والوظيفة الثانية هي سن وتشريع القوانين ، والثالثة هي مراقبة عمل الوزارة ومسألة الوزارة سياسياً، وللبرلمان حق طرح الثقة بالوزارة ككل (مسئولية جماعية) أو بكل وزير على حدة (مسئولية فردية)،وإذا تم سحب الثقة فعلى الوزير أو الوزارة الاستقالة فوراً. وحتى لا يغالي البرلمان في استعمال هذا الحق فإن للوزارة حق حل البرلمان المنتخب ،ويعاد الأمر إلى الأمة لتقول كلمتها في الانتخابات فإذا جاء البرلمان الجديد واقر ما نفس ما اقره القديم فلا تستطيع الوزارة حل البرلمان مرتين لنفس السبب.

الوزارة

هى المسؤولة عن الوظيفة التنفيذية وهذه المسئولية بالتبعية تصحبها سلطة فهي المهيمن الحقيقي على السلطة التنفذية، وهي همزة الوصل بين الهيئة التنفيذية، والهيئة التشريعية (البرلمان)، وتسأل الوزارة أمام البرلمان سياسياًَ ، ويحضر الوزراء جلسات البرلمان للدفاع عن انفسهم ولو كانوا غير اعضاء في البرلمان وانتهى العرف إلى أنه من المستحسن أن يجمع الوزير بين عضوية الوزارة وعضوية البرلمان .

رئيس مجلس الوزراء

هو الرئيس الحقيقي للحكومة. يتم في الأغلب انتخابه بأن يكون رئيس حزب الأغلبية أو تحالف الأغلبية في البرلمان. ويختار الوزراء ويمكن إنهاء حكومته فور تقديم إستقالته لرأس الدولة، وله سلطة فصل الوزراء وحل البرلمان والدعوة لانتخابات عامة.

التداخل العضوي والتداخل الوظيفي

هما من الخصائص المميزة للنظام البرلماني فالتداخل العضوي هو ان من حق الوزير ان يكون عضوا منتخبا في البرلمان اما التداخل الوظيفي فمن حق السلطة التنفيذية (الوزراة) مشاركة البرلمان في سلطة التشريع وعمل القوانين ، وكذلك بالنسبة للعمل التنفيذي الذي يتصل بالمصلحة العليا مثل المعاهدات الدولية والتي تبرم من جانب الوزارة لكنها تظل معلقة في نفاذها على تصديق البرلمان ومن هنا فالبرلمان يشارك في العمل التنفيذي .

قائمة الجمهوريات البرلمانية الحديثة والنظم المتعلقة

المقالة الرئيسية: List of countries by system of government § Parliamentary and related systems
Full parliamentary republics
Country/territory Head of state Head of state elected by Cameral structure Parliamentary republic adopted Previous government form Notes
  ألبانيا Bajram Begaj Parliament, by three-fifths majority Unicameral 1991 دولة الحزب الواحد
  أرمنيا Vahagn Khachaturyan Parliament, by absolute majority Unicameral 2018[note 1] Semi-presidential republic
  النمسا Alexander Van der Bellen Direct election, by two-round system Bicameral 1945 One-party state (as part of Nazi Germany, see Anschluss)
  بنگلادش Mohammed Shahabuddin Parliament Unicameral 1991[note 2] Presidential republic
  بربادوس Sandra Mason Parliament, by two-thirds majority if there is no joint nomination Bicameral 2021 Constitutional monarchy (Commonwealth realm)
  البوسنة والهرسك Christian Schmidt
Milorad Dodik
Šefik Džaferović
Željko Komšić 		Direct election of collective head of state, by first-past-the-post vote Bicameral 1991 One-party state (part of Yugoslavia)
  Bulgaria Rumen Radev Direct election, by two-round system Unicameral 1991 One-party state
  تايوان Tsai Ing-wen Direct election, by first-past-the-post
Nominally by the National Assembly[note 3] 		Unicameral
Nominally Tricameral[note 4] 		1946
Only nominally a parliamentary republic since 1996 		One-party military dictatorship (Mainland China)
Constitutional monarchy (Taiwan as part of the Japanese Empire) 		Nominally; the Constitution has been partially superseded by additional articles that provide for a semi-presidential republic with direct presidential elections and a unicameral legislature. These additional articles have a sunset clause that will terminate them in the event of a hypothetical resumption of ROC rule in Mainland China.
  Croatia Zoran Milanović Direct election, by two-round system Unicameral 2000 Semi-presidential republic
  التشيك Petr Pavel Direct election, by two-round system (since 2013; previously parliament, by majority) Bicameral 1993 Parliamentary republic (part of Czechoslovakia)
  دومنيكا Sylvanie Burton Parliament, by majority Unicameral 1978 Associated state of the United Kingdom
  إستونيا Alar Karis Parliament, by two-thirds majority Unicameral 1991[note 5] Presidential republic, thereafter occupied by a one-party state
  إثيوپيا Sahle-Work Zewde Parliament, by two-thirds majority Bicameral 1991 One-party state
  فيجي Wiliame Katonivere Parliament, by majority Unicameral 2014 Military dictatorship
  فنلندا Alexander Stubb Direct election, by two-round system Unicameral 2000[note 6] Semi-presidential republic
  جورجيا Salome Zourabichvili Parliament and regional delegates, by absolute majority Unicameral 2018[note 7] Semi-presidential republic
  ألمانيا Frank-Walter Steinmeier Federal Convention (Bundestag and state delegates[أ]), by absolute majority[1] Two unicameral institutions[note 8][2] 1949[note 9] One-party state

(Nazi Germany)

  اليونان Katerina Sakellaropoulou Parliament, by majority Unicameral 1975 Military dictatorship; constitutional monarchy
  المجر Tamás Sulyok Parliament, by majority Unicameral 1990 One-party state (Hungarian People's Republic)
  آيسلندا Guðni Th. Jóhannesson Direct election, by first-past-the-post vote Unicameral 1944 Constitutional monarchy (in a personal union with Denmark)
  الهند Droupadi Murmu Parliament and state legislature, by instant-runoff vote Bicameral 1950 Constitutional monarchy (British Dominion)
  العراق Abdul Latif Rashid Parliament, by two-thirds majority Unicameral[note 10] 2005 One-party state
  أيرلندا Michael D. Higgins Direct election, by instant-runoff vote Bicameral 1949[note 11] To 1936: Constitutional monarchy (British Dominion)
1936–1949: ambiguous
  إسرائيل Isaac Herzog Parliament, by majority Unicameral 2001 Semi-parliamentary republic
  إيطاليا Sergio Mattarella Parliament and region delegates, by two-thirds majority; by absolute majority, starting from the fourth ballot, if no candidate achieves the aforementioned majority in the first three ballots Bicameral 1946 Constitutional monarchy Prime Minister is dependent on the confidence of both of the houses of Parliament.
  كوسوڤو Vjosa Osmani Parliament, by two-thirds majority; by a simple majority, at the third ballot, if no candidate achieves the aforementioned majority in the first two ballots Unicameral 2008 UN-administered Kosovo (formally part of Serbia)
  لاتڤيا Edgars Rinkēvičs Parliament Unicameral 1991[note 12] Presidential republic, thereafter occupied by a one-party state
  لبنان Najib Mikati
(Acting) 		Parliament Unicameral 1941 Protectorate (French mandate of Lebanon)
  مالطا George Vella Parliament, by two-thirds majority Unicameral 1974 Constitutional monarchy (Commonwealth realm[3])[4]
  موريشيوس Prithvirajsing Roopun Parliament, by majority Unicameral 1992 Constitutional monarchy (Commonwealth realm[5][6])[4]
  مولدوڤا Maia Sandu Direct election, by two-round system
(since 2016; previously by parliament, by three-fifths majority) 		Unicameral 2001 Semi-presidential republic
  الجبل الأسود Jakov Milatović Direct election, by two-round system Unicameral 1992 One-party state (Part of Yugoslavia, and after Serbia and Montenegro)
  نيپال Ram Chandra Poudel Parliament and state legislators Bicameral[7] 2008[note 13] Constitutional monarchy
  شمال مقدونيا Stevo Pendarovski Direct election, by two-round system Unicameral 1991 One-party state (part of Yugoslavia)
  پاكستان Asif Ali Zardari Parliament and state legislators, by instant-runoff vote Bicameral 2010[8][9] Assembly-independent republic
  پولندا Andrzej Duda Direct election, by majority Bicameral 1989 One-party state (Polish People's Republic) Poland has also been identified as a de facto semi-presidential republic as the President does exercise some form of governance and appoints the Prime Minister as the head of government. The decision is then subject to a parliamentary vote of confidence.[10][11][12][13]
  ساموا Tuimalealiifano Va'aletoa Sualauvi II Parliament Unicameral 1960 Trust Territory of New Zealand
  صربيا Aleksandar Vučić Direct election, by two-round system Unicameral 1991 One-party state (part of Yugoslavia, and later Serbia and Montenegro)
  سنغافورة Tharman Shanmugaratnam Direct election (since 1993) Unicameral 1965 State of Malaysia
  سلوڤاكيا Zuzana Čaputová Direct election, by two-round system (since 1999; previously by parliament) Unicameral 1993 Parliamentary Republic (part of Czechoslovakia)
  سلوڤنيا Nataša Pirc Musar Direct election, by two-round system Bicameral 1991 One-party state (part of Yugoslavia)
  الصومال Hassan Sheikh Mohamud Parliament Bicameral 2012[note 14] One-party state
  ترنيداد وتوباگو Christine Kangaloo Parliament Bicameral 1976 Constitutional monarchy (Commonwealth realm[14])[4]
  ڤانواتو Nikenike Vurobaravu Parliament and regional council presidents, by majority Unicameral 1980 British–French condominium (New Hebrides)
Parliamentary republics with an executive presidency
Country Head of state Head of state elected by Cameral structure Parliamentary republic with an executive presidency adopted Previous government form Notes
  بتسوانا Mokgweetsi Masisi Parliament, by majority Unicameral 1966 British protectorate (Bechuanaland Protectorate)
  كيريباس Taneti Maamau Direct election, by first-past-the-post vote Unicameral 1979 Protectorate Following a general election, by which citizens elect the members of the House of Assembly, members select from their midst "not less than 3 nor more than 4 candidates" for the presidency. No other person may stand as candidate. The citizens of Kiribati then elect the president from among the proposed candidates with first-past-the-post voting.[15]
  جزر مارشال David Kabua Parliament Bicameral 1979 UN Trust Territory (part of Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands)
  ناورو Russ Kun Parliament Unicameral 1968 UN Trusteeship between Australia, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom.
  جنوب أفريقيا Cyril Ramaphosa Parliament, by majority Bicameral 1961 Constitutional monarchy (Commonwealth realm[16][17][18])[4] Was a full parliamentary republic from 1961–1984; adopted an executive presidency in 1984.
Assembly-independent systems
Country Head of state Head of state elected by Cameral structure Assembly-independent republic adopted Previous government form Notes
  ميكرونزيا Wesley Simina Parliament, by majority Unicameral 1986 UN Trust Territory (Part of Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands) The president is assisted by the vice-president, both of whom are elected by the FSM Congress from among the at-large members to serve for four-year terms.[19]
  گويانا Irfaan Ali Semi-direct election, by first-past-the-post vote[20] (vacancies are filled by Parliament, by majority) Unicameral 1980 Full parliamentary republic
  سان مارينو Francesco Mussoni
Giacomo Simoncini 		Parliament Unicameral 1291 Theocracy (part of the Papal States) Two collective heads of state and heads of government, the Captains Regent
  سورينام Chan Santokhi Parliament Unicameral 1987 Full parliamentary republic
Directorial systems
Country Head of state Head of state elected by Cameral structure Parliamentary republic adopted Previous government form Notes
   سويسرا Guy Parmelin
Ignazio Cassis
Ueli Maurer
Simonetta Sommaruga
Alain Berset
Karin Keller-Sutter
Viola Amherd 		Parliament by exhaustive ballot at a joint sitting of both houses Bicameral 1848 Confederation of states Also has citizen-initiated referendums


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قائمة الجمهوريات البرلمانية السابقة والنظم المتعلقة

Country Became a
parliamentary
republic 		Status
changed 		Changed to Reason for change Notes
Full parliamentary republics
  SSR Abkhazia 1921 1931 One-party parliamentary republic Creation of the Abkhaz Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic Had a collective head of state with a distinct chairman
One-party system under the Communist Party of Abkhazia
  جمهورية أبخازيا الاشتراكية السوڤيتية المستقلة ذاتياً 1931 1991 Full parliamentary republic Constitutional amendment Had a collective head of state with a distinct chairman until 1990
One-party system under the Communist Party of Abkhazia
  أبخازيا 1991 1994 Semi-presidential republic New constitution adopted
  أرمينيا 1918 1920 One-party parliamentary republic Creation of the Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic
  أرمنيا الاشتراكية 1920 1991 Multi-party semi-presidential republic Constitutional amendment Had a collective head of state with a distinct chairman until 1990
One-party system under the Communist Party of Armenia
  First Austrian Republic 1920 1929 Semi-presidential system Constitutional amendment
  أذربجيان 1918 1920 One-party parliamentary republic Creation of the Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic
  أذربيجان 1920 1990 Presidential republic Constitutional amendment Had a collective head of state with a distinct chairman
One-party system under the Communist Party of Azerbaijan
  Belarusian Democratic Republic 1918 1920 One-party parliamentary republic Creation of the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic
  بلاروس الاشتراكية السوڤيتية 1920 1990 Full parliamentary republic Constitutional amendment Had a collective head of state with a distinct chairman
One-party system under the Communist Party of Byelorussia
  بلاروس 1990 1994 Presidential republic New constitution adopted
  البرازيل 1961 1963 Presidential system Referendum
  Burma (present-day Myanmar) 1948 1962 Military dictatorship 1962 Burmese coup d'état
  Chile 1891 1924 Military junta 1924 Chilean coup d'état
1925 1925 Presidential system New constitution
  Republic of China 1947 1972 (de facto) Presidential system Constitution suspended The provisions establishing a parliamentary republic remain in the Constitution which is generally in effect, but are suspended by the Additional Articles, which have a sunset clause that will terminate them in the event of a hypothetical resumption of ROC rule in Mainland China.
1991 (de jure; nominally remains parliamentary) Semi-presidential system Additional articles of the Constitution adopted
  First Czechoslovak Republic 1920 1939 One-party state Munich agreement
  Third Czechoslovak Republic 1945 1948 One-party parliamentary republic Coup d'état
  Fourth Czechoslovak Republic 1948 1989 Multi-party parliamentary republic Velvet Revolution One-party system under the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia
  Fifth Czechoslovak Republic 1989 1992 State dissolved Velvet Divorce
قالب:Country data East Indonesia State of East Indonesia 1946 1950 State dissolved Merged to the Republic of Indonesia
  First Republic of Estonia 1920 1934 One-party parliamentary republic 1934 Estonian coup d'état In June 1940, Estonia was occupied and annexed by the Soviet Union.
1934 1938 One-party presidential republic New constitution adopted
  French Third Republic 1870 1940 Puppet state World War II German occupation
  French Fourth Republic 1946 1958 Semi-presidential system New constitution adopted
  جمهورية جورجيا الديمقراطية 1918 1921 One-party parliamentary republic Creation of the Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic and the Socialist Soviet Republic of Abkhazia
  جورجيا الاشتراكية السوڤيتية 1921 1991 Multi-party semi-presidential republic Constitutional amendment Had a collective head of state with a distinct chairman until 1990
One-party system under the Communist Party of Georgia
  گويانا 1970 1980 Assembly-independent republic New constitution adopted
  Hungary 1946 1949 One-party state Creation of the People's Republic of Hungary
  اندونيسيا 1945 1959 Presidential system Presidential constitution reinstated
  إسرائيل 1948 1996 Semi-parliamentary system Constitutional amendment
  كينيا 2008 2013 Presidential system New constitution and elections A separate Prime Minister existed between 2008 and 2013
The switch to a fully presidential system was legislated in 2010, but only took effect in 2013.
  Second Republic of Korea 1960 1961 Military junta 16 May coup
  جمهورية قزخستان الاشتراكية السوڤيتية 1936 1990 Presidential republic Constitutional amendment Had a collective head of state with a distinct chairman
One-party system under the Communist Party of Kazakhstan
  جمهورية قيرغيزستان الاشتراكية السوڤيتية 1936 1990 Presidential republic Constitutional amendment Had a collective head of state with a distinct chairman
One-party system under the Communist Party of Kirghizia
  قيرغيزستان 2010 2021 Presidential republic Referendum The 2010 Constitution of Kyrgyzstan introduced a parliamentary system to the country while remaining a de facto semi-presidential republic, with the President retaining many forms of executive powers such as appointing a Prime Minister as the head of government. The decision was subjected to a parliamentary vote of confidence.[21]
  First Republic of Latvia 1922 1934 One-party parliamentary republic 1934 Latvian coup d'état In June 1940, Latvia was occupied and annexed by the Soviet Union.
1934 1940 State dissolved World War II Soviet occupation
  First Republic of Lithuania 1920 1926 One-party state 1926 Lithuanian coup d'état In June 1940, Lithuania was occupied and annexed by the Soviet Union.
  لتوانيا 1990 1992 Multi-party semi-presidential republic New constitution adopted In February 1993, Lithuania holds its first presidential election since the state re-established.
  مولدوڤا الاشتراكية (present-day Moldova) 1940 1990 Multi-party semi-presidential republic Constitutional amendment Had a collective head of state with a distinct chairman
One-party system under the Communist Party of Moldavia
  نيجيريا 1963 1966 Military dictatorship
(which led in 1979 to the democratic, presidential Second Nigerian Republic) 		Coup d'état
  پاكستان 1956 1958 Military dictatorship 1958 Pakistani coup d'état
1973 1978 1977 Pakistani coup d'état
1997 1999 1999 Pakistani coup d'état
2002 2003 Assembly-independent republic Constitutional amendment
  Second Polish Republic 1919 1935 Presidential system New constitution adopted
  First Portuguese Republic 1911 1926 Military dictatorship
(which led in 1933
to the Estado Novo one-party presidential republic) 		28 May coup
  First Philippine Republic (Malolos Republic) 1899 1901 Military dictatorship
(De facto United States Colony) 		Capture of Emilio Aguinaldo to the American forces
  Fourth Philippine Republic 1973 1981 Semi-presidential system
(de facto Military dictatorship under Martial Law between 1972 and 1986.) 		Constitutional amendment
  Republic of the Congo 1960 1965 Military dictatorship
(De facto one-party state) 		1965 Congolese coup d'état
  روديسيا 1970 1979 Parliamentary system Creation of Zimbabwe-Rhodesia Political rights were restricted to the white minority
  روسيا الاشتراكية الاتحادية السوڤيتية 1917 1991 Multi-party semi-presidential republic Referendum
  الاتحاد السوڤيتي 1922 1990 Multi-party semi-presidential republic Constitutional amendment Had a collective head of state with a distinct chairman until 1989
One-party system under the Communist Party of the Soviet Union
  First Spanish Republic 1873 1874 Constitutional monarchy Restoration of the monarchy
  Second Spanish Republic 1931 1939 One-party state
(which declared itself a constitutional monarchy in 1947) 		Coup d'état
  سورينام 1975 1987 Assembly-independent republic New constitution adopted
  سريلانكا 1972 1978 Semi-presidential system New constitution adopted
  Syrian Republic 1930 1958 State dissolved Creation of the United Arab Republic Merged into the United Arab Republic, which operated as a One-party presidential system
  Syrian Arab Republic 1961 1963 One-party presidential system 1963 Syrian coup d'état
  Transvaal Republic 1852 1902 Colony of the British Empire Second Boer War
  Tajik SSR 1929 1990 Presidential republic Constitutional amendment Had a collective head of state with a distinct chairman
One-party system under the Communist Party of Tajikistan
  تركيا 1923 2018 Presidential system Referendum
  Turkmen SSR 1925 1990 Presidential republic Constitutional amendment Had a collective head of state with a distinct chairman
One-party system under the Communist Party of Turkmenistan
  أوغندا 1963 1966 One-party state Suspension of the constitution
  جمهورية أوكرانيا الشعبية 1917 1918 Client state 1918 Ukrainian coup d'état
1918 1919 One-party parliamentary republic Creation of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic
1921 State dissolved Treaty of Riga
  جمهورية اوكرانيا الإشتراكية السوڤيتية 1919 1991 Multi-party semi-presidential republic Constitutional amendment Had a collective head of state with a distinct chairman until 1990
One-party system under the Communist Party of Ukraine
  جمهورية أوزبكستان الاشتراكية السوڤيتية 1924 1990 Presidential republic Constitutional amendment Had a collective head of state with a distinct chairman
One-party system under the Communist Party of Uzbekistan
  يوغوسلاڤيا 1945 1953 Parliamentary republic with an executive presidency Constitutional amendment Had a collective head of state with a distinct chairman
One-party system under the Communist Party of Yugoslavia
  زيمبابوي روديسيا 1979 1979 Dependent territory Reversion to Southern Rhodesia
  زيمبابوي 1980 1987 Presidential system Constitutional amendment
Parliamentary republics with an executive presidency
Country Became a
parliamentary
republic
with an executive
presidency 		Status
changed 		Changed to Reason for change Notes
  گامبيا 1970 1982 Presidential system Constitutional amendment The president was elected semi-directly by a constituency-based double simultaneous vote, with vacancies filled by Parliament; a motion of no confidence automatically entailed snap parliamentary elections. Presidential elections were made fully direct and separate from parliamentary elections in 1982.
  كنيا 1964 2008 Full parliamentary system Coalition and power-sharing Originally, the president was elected semi-directly by a constituency-based double simultaneous vote, with vacancies filled by Parliament; a motion of no confidence automatically entailed either the resignation of the president or snap parliamentary elections. Presidential elections were made fully direct in 1969, including after a vacancy, but their schedule remained linked to the parliamentary elections.
A separate Prime Minister existed between 2008 and 2013.
  يوغوسلاڤيا 1953 1963 Assembly-independent republic New constitution One-party system under the League of Communists of Yugoslavia
Assembly-independent systems
Country Became an
assembly-
independent
republic 		Status
changed 		Changed to Reason for change Notes
  First Republic of Ghana 1960 1966 Military dictatorship
(Which led to the fully parliamentary Second Republic of Ghana) 		Coup d'état
  پاكستان 1985 1997 Full parliamentary republic Constitutional amendment
2003 2010 Constitutional amendment
  صربيا والجبل الأسود 1992 2000 Semi-presidential republic Constitutional amendment
  تنجانيقا 1962 1964 State dissolved Creation of the United Republic of Tanzania Merged into the United Republic of Tanzania, which operated as a One-party presidential system
  يوغوسلاڤيا 1963 1980 Directorial republic New constitution and the death of Josip Broz Tito One-party system under the League of Communists of Yugoslavia
The change to a directorial system was legislated in 1973, but only took effect in 1980.
Directorial systems
  يوغوسلاڤيا 1980 1992 — Breakup of Yugoslavia One-party system under the League of Communists of Yugoslavia


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انظر أيضاً

ملاحظات

  1. ^ Changed after the 2015 referendum.
  2. ^ Was, previously, a parliamentary republic between 1972 and 1975.
  3. ^ The Constitution of the Republic of China went into effect on 25 December 1947 as the Chinese Civil War was underway. On 1 October 1949, the Kuomintang-led Republic of China (ROC) was succeeded in Mainland China by the People's Republic of China, a single-party state governed by the Chinese Communist Party. The ROC government was then confined to the island of Taiwan from 7 December. The provisions establishing a parliamentary republic remain in the Constitution but are suspended by the Additional Articles, which established direct presidential elections since 1996.
  4. ^ Under the Additional Articles, the Control Yuan ceased to be a parliamentary chamber in 1993 and the National Assembly was dissolved in 2005 leaving the Legislative Yuan as the unicameral chamber. Functions of the National Assembly were transferred to the Legislative Yuan and nationwide referendums. According to Judicial Yuan Interpretation no. 76, Shall the National Assembly, the Legislative Yuan and the Control Yuan be considered en masse as equivalent to the parliaments of democratic nations? issued on May 3, 1957: The Constitution was enacted according to the exhortation of Dr. Sun Yat-Sen. In addition to the National Assembly, five Yuans have been established, the concept of which is not really analogous to the separation of powers system. The National Assembly representing all the nationals exercises the political power, the Legislative Yuan is the highest legislative institution of the nation and the Control Yuan is the highest monitoring institution of the nation. All of them are composed of representatives or members that are directly or indirectly elected by the people. Their functions and powers are similar to those important powers exercised by the parliaments of democratic nations. Although some of their approaches to the exercise of power, such as a regular annual assembly, quorum and resolution by the majority are not the same as those of parliaments of democratic nations, the National Assembly, the Legislative Yuan and the Control Yuan, from the perspective of the nature of their statuses and functions in the Constitution, should be considered as equivalent to the parliaments of democratic nations.
  5. ^ Estonia was previously a parliamentary republic between 1918 and 1934 when the system was changed to a presidential system which was thereafter overthrown by a coup d'état. In 1938, Estonia finally adopted a presidential system and in June 1940 was illegally occupied by the Soviet Union. Became a parliamentary republic again in 1990 with the implementation of an interim period to restore full independence, which was achieved by 1991.
  6. ^ Formerly a semi-presidential republic, it is now a parliamentary republic according to David Arter, First Chair of Politics at Aberdeen University. In his "Scandinavian Politics Today" (Manchester University Press, revised 2008 ISBN 9780719078538), he quotes Nousiainen, Jaakko (June 2001). "From semi-presidentialism to parliamentary government: political and constitutional developments in Finland". Scandinavian Political Studies. 24 (2): 95–109. doi:10.1111/1467-9477.00048. as follows: "There are hardly any grounds for the epithet 'semi-presidential'." Arter's own conclusions are only slightly more nuanced: "The adoption of a new constitution on 1 March 2000 meant that Finland was no longer a case of semi-presidential government other than in the minimalist sense of a situation where a popularly elected fixed-term president exists alongside a prime minister and cabinet who are responsible to parliament (Elgie 2004: 317)". According to the Finnish Constitution, the president has no possibility to rule the government without the ministerial approval, and does not have the power to dissolve the parliament under his or her own desire. Finland is actually represented by its prime minister, and not by its president, in the Council of the Heads of State and Government of the European Union. The 2012 constitutional amendments reduced the powers of the president even further.
  7. ^ "Salome Zurabishvili Wins Georgia Presidential Runoff". The New York Times. The Associated Press. 29 November 2018. Retrieved 3 January 2019.
  8. ^ The Bundesrat is sometimes referred to as an upper chamber of the German legislature. This is technically incorrect, since the German Constitution defines the Bundestag and Bundesrat as two separate legislative institutions. It describes the Bundesrat as the constitutional organ which is representing the 16 Länder (States) of Germany. Hence, the federal legislature of Germany consists of two unicameral legislative institutions, not one bicameral parliament. However the Federal Constitutional Court itself referred to the Bundesrat in the English translation of this decision.
  9. ^ In the case of the former West German states, including former West Berlin, the previous one-party state is Nazi Germany, but in the case of the New Länder and former East Berlin it is East Germany. German reunification took place on 3 October 1990, when the five re-established states of the German Democratic Republic (East Germany) joined the Federal Republic of Germany, and Berlin was united into a single city-state. Therefore, this date applies to today's Federal Republic of Germany as a whole, although the area of former East Germany was no part of that parliamentary republic until 1990.
  10. ^ Officially bicameral, upper house never entered into functions, to present day.
  11. ^ The head of state was ambiguous from 1936 until the Republic of Ireland Act came into force on 18 April 1949. A minority of Irish republicans assert that the Irish Republic proclaimed in 1919 is still extant.
  12. ^ Latvia was previously a parliamentary republic between 1921 and 1934 when the then prime minister Kārlis Ulmanis took power in a coup d'état. In June 1940 Latvia was occupied and annexed by the Soviet Union.
  13. ^ Under a transitional government between 2006 and 2015; this Transitional Government was responsible to an elected Constituent Assembly, which resolved to establish a republic in 2008.
  14. ^ Had a transitional government between 1991 and 2012.
  1. ^ The Federal Convention is made up of all the members of the Bundestag. The other half is distributed to the 16 Länder, that then each elect Members to elect the President of Germany. Often German celebrities are chosen by the state parliaments.

الهامش

  1. ^ "Art 54 GG - Einzelnorm". www.gesetze-im-internet.de. Retrieved 2023-09-20.
  2. ^ "Zusammensetzung des Bundesrates". Bundesrat (in الألمانية). Retrieved 2023-09-20.
  3. ^ "Malta: Heads of State: 1964-1974". Archontology.org. Retrieved 18 February 2018.
  4. ^ أ ب ت ث "British Monarch's Titles: 1867-2018". Archontology.org. Retrieved 18 February 2018.
  5. ^ "Mauritius: Heads of State: 1968-1992". Archontology.org. Retrieved 18 February 2018.
  6. ^ Paxton, John (1984). The Statesman's Year-Book 1984-85. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 29. ISBN 978-0-333-34731-7. Retrieved 18 February 2018.
  7. ^ Constitution of Nepal Archived ديسمبر 23, 2015 at the Wayback Machine
  8. ^ Kiran Khalid (9 April 2010). "Pakistan lawmakers approve weakening of presidential powers". CNN. Retrieved 14 April 2010.
  9. ^ "'18th Amendment to restore Constitution'". Nation.com.pk. Archived from the original on 14 April 2010. Retrieved 14 April 2010.
  10. ^ Veser, Ernst (23 September 1997). "Semi-Presidentialism-Duverger's Concept — A New Political System Model" (PDF) (in الإنجليزية and الصينية). Department of Education, School of Education, University of Cologne. pp. 39–60. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 April 2021. Retrieved 21 August 2017. Duhamel has developed the approach further: He stresses that the French construction does not correspond to either parliamentary or the presidential form of government, and then develops the distinction of 'système politique' and 'régime constitutionnel'. While the former comprises the exercise of power that results from the dominant institutional practice, the latter is the totality of the rules for the dominant institutional practice of the power. In this way, France appears as 'presidentialist system' endowed with a 'semi-presidential regime' (1983: 587). By this standard he recognizes Duverger's pléiade as semi-presidential regimes, as well as Poland, Romania, Bulgaria and Lithuania (1993: 87). {{cite web}}: Check |author-link= value (help)
  11. ^ Shugart, Matthew Søberg (September 2005). "Semi-Presidential Systems: Dual Executive and Mixed Authority Patterns" (PDF). Graduate School of International Relations and Pacific Studies. Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 August 2008. Retrieved 21 August 2017.
  12. ^ Shugart, Matthew Søberg (December 2005). "Semi-Presidential Systems: Dual Executive And Mixed Authority Patterns" (PDF). French Politics. 3 (3): 323–351. doi:10.1057/palgrave.fp.8200087. Retrieved 21 August 2017. Even if the president has no discretion in the forming of cabinets or the right to dissolve parliament, his or her constitutional authority can be regarded as 'quite considerable' in Duverger's sense if cabinet legislation approved in parliament can be blocked by the people's elected agent. Such powers are especially relevant if an extraordinary majority is required to override a veto, as in Mongolia, Poland, and Senegal. In these cases, while the government is fully accountable to parliament, it cannot legislate without taking the potentially different policy preferences of the president into account.
  13. ^ McMenamin, Iain. "Semi-Presidentialism and Democratisation in Poland" (PDF). School of Law and Government, Dublin City University. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 February 2012. Retrieved 11 December 2017.
  14. ^ "Trinidad and Tobago: Heads of State: 1962-1976". Archontology.org. Retrieved 18 February 2018.
  15. ^ "Parliament of Kiribati - Constitution". 2009-04-16. Archived from the original on 2009-04-16. Retrieved 2023-08-25.
  16. ^ "South Africa: Heads of State: 1910-1961". Archontology.org. Retrieved 18 February 2018.
  17. ^ Carlin, John (31 May 1994). "South Africa returns to the Commonwealth fold". The Independent. Archived from the original on 2022-05-25. Retrieved 18 February 2018.
  18. ^ "Secession Talked by Some Anti-Republicans". Saskatoon Star-Phoenix. 11 October 1960. Retrieved 18 February 2018.
  19. ^ "Executive". www.gov.fm (in الإنجليزية البريطانية). Retrieved 2023-08-25.
  20. ^ Every list of candidates for Parliament must also have a candidate for President, and the having the most votes automatically has its candidate elected President
  21. ^ Esengeldiev, Almaz. "Kyrgyzstan's 2016 Constitutional Referendum". Freedom House (in الإنجليزية). Retrieved 2023-10-16.
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